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MAR   27   1994 


A  TREATISE 


V  0 


^[fiatOGiaistt^ 


ON    THE 


V.'X 


5    JUL  IS  lit 
^V, .„ 

PREPARATION  AND  DELIVErT 


OF 


SERMON  S. 


BY 


JOHN  A.  BROADUS,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

PROFESSOR     IN     THE    SOUTHERN     BAPTIST    THEOLOGICAL    SEMINARY, 
GREENVILLE,    S.  C, 


4ifth    <£Htt0n. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
SMITH,  ENGLISH  &  CO., 

710  Arch  Street. 

NEW  YORK:  SHELDON  &  CO.,  500  BROADWAY. 

BICHMOND,  YA. :  STARKE  &  RYLAND. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in   the  year  1*^70,  ly 

JOHN  A.  BROADUS, 

in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


J    FAGJ^N  k  FON. 


"^. 


^*^^v.-  I'Hl.'.ADEl.l'IUA  fVfrV^ 


CAXTON  PRESS  OF  SHERMAN  *  00. 


In  compliance  with  current 
copyright  law,  LBS  Archival 

Products  produced  this 

replacement  volume  on  paper 

that  meets  the  ANSI  Standard 

Z39.48-1984  to  replace  the 

irreparably  deteriorated 

original. 

1993 
(00) 


PEEFACE. 


THIS  wo  k  is  designed,  on  the  one  hand  ;o  be  a  text- 
book fcr  classes,  and  on  the  other  to  be  read  by  such 
ministers,  younger  or  older,  as  may  wish  to  study  the  sub- 
jects discussed. 

As  a  teacher  of  Homiletics  for  ten  years,  the  author  had 
felt  the  need  of  a  more  complete  text-book,  since  a  course 
made  up  from  parts  of  several  different  works  would  still 
omit  certain  important  subjects,  and  furnish  but  a  meagre 
treatment  of  others,  leaving  the  class  to  a  great  extent 
dependent  entirely  upon  the  lectures.  The  desire  thus! 
arose  to  prepare,  whenever  possible,  a  work  which  should 
be  full  in  its  range  of  topics,  and  should  also  attempt  to 
combine  the  thorough  discussion  of  principles  with  an 
abundance  of  practical  rules  and  suggestions.  When  the 
labor  involved  in  teaching  this  and  at  the  same  time 
another  branch  of  Theology  became  excessive,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  relinquish  Homiletics  —  though  always  a 
favorite  branch  —  the  author  determined,  before  the  sub- 
ject should  fade  from  his  mind,  to  undertake  the  work  he 
had  contemplated. 

The  treatise  is  therefore  a  result  of  practical  instruction, 
but  it  is  not  simply  a  printed  course  of  lectures.  The 
materials  existing  in  the  form  of  brief  notes  have  been 
everywhere  rewrought,  the  literature  of  the  subject  care- 
fully re-examined,  and  the  place  which  had  been  occupied 
by  text-books,  jQlled  )y  an  independent  discussion. 

iii 


IV  PREFACE. 

Those  who  may  think  of  employing  the  work  as  a  text- 
book are  requested  to  note,  that  it  is  divided  into  indepen- 
dent Parts,  which,  while  arranged  in  the  order  indicated 
by  the  nature  of  the  subject,  may  be  taken  up  in  any  other 
order  required  by  the  exigencies  of  instruction.  Some 
would  prefer  to  begin  with  Arrangement,  in  order  that  stu- 
dents may  at  once  have  the  benefit  of  this  in  preparing 
sermons  or  sketches.  Others  might  begin  with  Style,  in 
order  to  general  exercises  in  composition  ;  and  possibly 
others  with  Delivery.  The  author  would  himself  prefer, 
if  using  the  book,  to  take,  after  the  Introduction,  the  first 
three  chapters  of  Part  I,  and  then  Part  II  and  perhaps 
other  portions  before  completing  Part  I.  The  cross  refer- 
ences from  one  part  to  another  will  be  found  somewhat 
numerous.  In  the  plan  of  the  work,  a  few  instances  occur  of 
departure  from  a  strict  technical  distribution  of  the  topics, 
for  the  sake  of  practical  convenience.  Thus  the  matters 
embraced  under  Illustration,  Expository  Preaching,  or 
Imagination,  would  strictly  belong  to  several  different 
parts  of  the  work,  but  it  is  practically  better  to  discuss  all 
at  the  same  time. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  explain  the  introduction  of  copi- 
ous chapters  on  the  Interpretation  of  a  Text,  and  on  Ar- 
gument. The  former  subject  is  discussed  in  treatises  on 
Hermeneutics.  But  besides  the  fact  that  not  a  few  of  those 
who  use  this  book  will  not  have  previously  studied  Her- 
meneutics, those  who  have  done  so  may  be  interested  and 
profited  by  a  discussion  bearing  more  directly  on  the  work 
of  preaching ;  and  such  students  will  be  able  to  read  the 
chapter  rapidlj.  Much  improvement  has  been  made  during 
the  past  century  in  respect  to  pulpit  interpretation,  but  it 
is  a  point  as  to  which  our  young  ministers  still  need  to  be 
very  carefully  guarded.  The  subject  of  Argument  is 
thought  by  some  to  be  out  of  place  in  a  treatise  on  liomi- 
letics  or  on  Rhetoric  in  general.     But  preachinsr  and  all 


PREFACE.  V 

public  speaking  ought  to  be  largely  composed  of  argument, 
for  even  the  most  ignorant  people  constantly  practice  it 
themselves,  and  always  feel  its  force  when  properly  pre- 
sented ;  and  yet  in  many  pulpits  the  place  of  argument  is 
mainly  filled  by  mere  assertion  and  exhortation,  and  the 
arguments  employed  are  often  carelessly  stated,  or  even 
gravely  erroneous.  Treatises  on  Logic  teach  the  critical 
inspection,  rather  than  the  construction  of  argument,  and 
so  the  latter  must  be  discussed  in  works  on  Rhetoric,  if 
anywhere.  The  well-known  chapters  of  Whately  have 
been  here  freely  employed,  but  with  very  large  additions, 
and  with  the  attempt  to  correct  some  important  errors. 
The  examples  of  argument  given  are  nearly  all  drawn 
from  religious  truth.  With  these  explanations  it  is  left  to 
instructors  to  use  or  omit  these  portions  of  the  work  at 
their  pleasure. 

But  the  great  mass  of  young  ministers,  particularly  in 
some  denominations,  never  study  Homiletics  under  a 
teacher,  whether  they  have  or  have  not  enjoyed  a  Colle- 
giate education.  The  attempt  has  been  everywhere  made 
to  adapt  the  present  work  to  the  wants  of  these  students,  as 
well  as  the  purposes  of  a  text-book.  They  will  choose  for 
themselves  what  portions  to  take  up  first,  but  such  as  have 
had  no  College  education  may  be  urged  not  to  abandon  the 
book  without  reading  the  discussion  of  Arrangement  and 
Style,  as  well  as  of  Interpretation,  Subjects  of  Preaching, 
and  Argument.  For  the  sake  of  those  who  have  enjoyed 
few  advantages,  occasional  explanations  have  been  intro- 
duced, which  other  readers  would  hardly  need. 

Those  who  have  had  much  experience  in  preaching  often 
find  it  interesting  and  useful  to  examine  a  treatise  on  the 
preparation  and  delivery  of  sermons.  New  topics  and  new 
methods  may  be  suggested,  things  forgotten  or  hitherto 
neglected  are  recalled,  ideas  gradually  formed  in  the  course 
of  experience  are  made  clearer  and  more  definite,  and 
1* 


vi  PREFACE. 

where  the  views  advanced  are  not  deemed  just,  renewed 
reflection  on  some  questions  need  not  be  unprofitable. 
Moreover,  the  desire  for  high  excellence  in  preaching  may 
receive  a  fresh  stimulus.  Such  readers  will  remember  that 
many  practical  matters  which  to  them  have  now  become 
obvious  and  commonplace,  are  precisely  the  points  upon 
which  a  beginner  most  needs  counsel.  And  while  there  are 
in  the  present  treatise  numerous  divisions  and  subdivisions, 
so  marked  as  to  meet  the  wants  of  students,  the  attempt 
has  been  made  to  preserve  the  style  from  becoming  broken 
and  unreadable. 

The  author's  chief  indebtedness  for  help  has  been  to 
Aristotle,  Cicero  and  Quintilian,  and  to  Whately  and 
Vinet.  The  two  last  (together  with  Ripley)  had  been  his 
text -books, —  and  copious  extracts  are  made  from  them 
on  certain  subjects.  A  good  deal  has  been  derived  from 
Alexander,  Shedd,  Day,  and  Hoppin,  from  Coquerel  and 
Palmer,  and  a  great  variety  of  other  writers,  as  the  Index 
will  show.  Besides  quotations,  there  are  numerous  refer- 
ences to  works  in  which  may  be  found  some  impressive 
statement  of  similar  opinions,  or  further  considerations 
bearing  on  the  subject  in  hand.  Only  such  references 
have  been  given  as  it  was  thought  really  worth  while  for 
the  student  to  consult.  At  the  close  of  the  Introduction,  there 
is  a  list  of  the  principal  works  forming  the  Literature  of 
Homiletics,  with  brief  notices  of  their  character  and  value. 
It  is  believed  that  to  give  in  a  treatise  some  account  of 
previous  works  on  the  subject,  as  judged  from  the  author's 
point  of  view,  is  a  thing  appropriate  and  calculated  to  be 
useful.  Such  notices,  in  the  case  of  contemporary  writers, 
ought  not  to  be  reckoned  discourteous  if  they  frankly 
express  disapprobation  in  some  respects  as  well  as  praise 
in  others.  Were  they  somewhat  more  extended,  these 
critical  appreciations  would  be  more  useful.  Besides 
this  general  account  of  the  literature,  essays  and  treatises 


PREFACE.  VU 

upon  particular  branches  of  Rhetoric  or  Horailetics  are 
briefly  characterized  in  foot-notes,  upon  the  introduction  of 
the  respective  topics.  Two  important  and  valuable  works, 
Mcllvaine  on  Elocution  (New  York,  1870),  and  Dabney's 
Sacred  Rhetoric  (Richmond,  1870),  were  received  after  the 
Introduction  was  stereotyped,  but  are  noticed  in  Part  IV, 
chapter  II,  and  were  made  useful  in  that  and  the  following 
chapters.  Two  articles  published  by  the  author  in  the 
Baptist  Quarterly  for  January,  1869,  and  January,  1870, 
have  been  incorporated  into  the  work,  with  the  necessary 
rewriting  ;  and  some  articles  forming  other  portions  of 
jt  have  appeared  in  the  Religious  Herald,  and  the  Cen- 
tral Baptist.  The  author  is  grateful  to  his  colleagues  and 
his  pastor,  for  sympathy  in  his  undertaking  and  for  valua- 
ble suggestions.  The  Index  has  been  prepared  by  the  Rev. 
John  C.  Long,  of  Virginia. 

Special  pains  have  been  taken,  at  the  proper  points  of 
the  treatise,  to  give  practical  suggestions  for  extempora- 
neous speaking.  Most  works  confine  their  instruction  as 
regards  the  preparation  of  sermons  to  the  case  of  writing 
out  in  full ;  and  many  treat  of  delivery,  as  if  it  were  in  all 
cases  to  be  reading  or  recitation.  The  effort  has  here  been 
to  keep  the  different  methods  in  view,  and  to  mention,  in 
connection  with  matters  applicable  to  all  alike,  such  as 
apply  to  one  or  another  method  in  particular. 

As  to  many  of  the  practical  questions  connected  with  the 
preparation  and  delivery  of  sermons,  there  is  much  differ- 
ence of  opinion ;  and  an  experienced  preacher  in  reading 
any  treatise  on  the  subject,  must  find  points  here  and  there 
which  he  would  prefer  to  see  treated  otherwise.  He  would 
decide  whether,  notwithstanding,  the  work  is  likely  to  be 
useful.  In  the  present  case,  criticism,  whether  favorable 
or  adverse,  would  be  welcomed.  Where  the  author  is  in 
error,  he  would  greatly  prefer  to  know  it.     Where  the 


via  PREFACE. 

views  presented  are  just,  they  may  become  more  useful 
through  discussion. 

No  one  could  prepare  a  work  on  this  subject  without 
feeling,  and  sometimes  deeply  feeling,  the  responsibility  he 
incurred.  It  is  a  solemn  thing  to  preach  the  gospel,  and 
therefore  a  very  solemn  thing  to  attempt  instruction  or 
even  suggestion  as  to  the  means  of  preaching  well. 

July,  1870. 

Note.  —  There  are  several  classes  of  persons  besides  ministers, 
to  whom  portions  of  this  work  may  perhaps  prove  acceptable  and 
useful. 

The  treatises  on  Rhetoric  now  studied,  in  schools  and  College, 
are  nearly  all  designed  to  prepare  the  student  for  writing,  rather 
than  distinctively  for  speaking;  and  speakers  upon  whatsoever  sub- 
ject, may  really  find  more  of  what  they  need  in  a  book  on  preaching. 
The  ablest  lawyers  and  statesmen  have  often  studied  sermons,  as 
specimens  of  eloquence  ;  why  not  learn  something  from  treatises 
on  the  preparation  and  delivery  of  sermons?  The  portions  which 
might  be  recommended  to  this  class  are  after  the  Introduction, 
Part  I,  chapters  4-8  ;  Part  II,  chapters  1  and  2 ;  Part  III ;  and 
Part  IV ;  and  these  may  be  taken  in  any  order. 

Lay  preachers,  and  persons  desirous  of  speaking  in  public  on 
religious  subjects,  might  be  not  a  little  helped  by  the  first  three 
chapters  of  Part  I,  by  Part  V,  and  by  such  other  portions  of  the 
work  as  they  may  find  time  to  read. 

To  Sunday-School  teachers  are  recommended  Part  I,  chapters 
2,  7,  and  8,  with  the  close  of  chapter  3  ;   and  Part  V. 

Intelligent  Christians,  of  both  sexes,  must  be  often  grieved  at  the 
false  estimate  of  preaching,  the  wrong  notions  of  what  it  is,  and 
what  it  ought  to  be,  which  are  so  prevalent.  By  reading  something 
practical  on  the  subject,  they  would  be  better  prepared  to  sustain 
those  who  preach  properly,  and  to  improve  the  tone  of  social  con- 
versation in  regard  to  this  matter.  They  might  also  become  more 
sympathizing  and  appreciative  hearers ;  and  good  listeners  are,  in 
proportion,  quite  as  rare  as  good  preachers.  To  these  are  recom- 
mended the  Introduction  ;  Part  I,  chapters  1-4,  7  and  8;  Part  II, 
chapter  3  ;   Part  IV  ;  and  Part  V. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

PAOB 

2  1.  Importance  of  Preaching 17 

Difl&culty  of  preaching  well 19 

§  2.  Nature  of  Eloquence 20 

§  3.  Requisites  to  eflFective  preaching,  viz.,  piety,  natural  gifts, 

knowledge,  skill 22 

§  4.  Origin  of  the  Rules  of  Rhetoric 25 

§  5.  Dangers  of  rhetorical  studies 26 

§  6.  Relation  of  Homiletics  to  Rhetoric 30 

3  7.  Literature  of  Homiletics 31 


PART    I. 

MATERIALS   OF   PEEACHIKG. 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  TEXT  —  SELECTION. 

§  1.  Cleaning  of  the  term  Text 38 

I  2.  Advantages  of  having  a  Text 89 

§  3.  Rules  (eight)  for  the  selection  of  Texts ^ «     41 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE  TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION. 

g  1.  Obligation  to  interpret  carefully  and  strictly  ..: 51 

^  2.  Chief  sources  of  error  in  the  interpretation  of  textB« 63 

ix 


X  CONTENTS. 

Misunderstanding  the  text  itself 63 

Disregarding  the  connection  of  the  text GO 

Improper  spiritualizing 65 

g  3    Examples  (nineteen)  of  texts  often  misapplied 70 

g  4.  Rules  (six)  for  interpreting  a  text 78 


CHAPTER  III. 

SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

I  1.  Doctrinal  subjects 88 

Evidences  of  Christianity 93 

Controversy  with  other  professed  Christians 95 

^  2.  Subjects  of  morality 97 

Political  preaching 99 

Temperance,  Amusements,  etc 104 

^  3.  Historical  subjects 105 

§  4.  Experimental  subjects 109 

g  5.  Occasional  sermons Ill 

Funeral  sermons Ill 

Academic  sermons 113 

Sermons  to  children 114 


CHAPTER  IV. 

GENERAL   MATERIALS   OF  PREACHING  —  ORIGINALITY 
AND   PLAGIARISM. 

^  1.  Materials  possessed  beforehand 118 

The  Scriptures  a  preacher's  chief  study 121 

Systematic  Theology 122 

Other  reading 123 

g  2.  Materials  provided  at  the  time 126 

§  3.  Original  materials 127 

Absolute  and  relative  originality 127 

Why  originality  is  so  desirable 130 

Obstacles  to  originality .'-. , 132 

§  4,  Borrowed  materials  and  Plagiarism 135 

Proper  use  of  ideas  derived  from  others 136 

Proper  acknowledgment  of  having  borrowed » 141 


CONTENTS.  XI 

CPIAPTER  Y. 

SPECIE  L   MATERIALS  —  EXPLANATION. 

PAQX 

Frequent  need  of  explanation  in  preaching 144 

I  1.  Explanation  of  Texts 146 

Pulpit  Exegesis 146 

Narration 147 

Description „ 150 

I  2.  Explanation  of  subjects 153 

Definition 153 

Division,  Exemplification,  Comparison 155 

CHAPTER  VI. 

ARGUMENT. 

Importance  of  argument  in  preaching 158 

^  1.  Preliminaries  to  argument 162 

Burden  of  proof — discussion  of  Whately's  theory 163 

^  2.  Principal  varieties  of  argument 173 

A.  Arguments  a  priori ..'*. 173 

B.  From  testimony 180 

C.  Induction 186 

D.  From  Analogy 189 

E.  Deduction  from  established  truth 194 

F.  Certain /orm^  of  argument 195 

I  3.  Refutation .,. „  198 

g  4.  Order  of  Arguments 206 

I  5.  General  suggestions  as  to  Argument 210 

CHAPTER  VII. 

ILLUSTRATION.  y 

• 

g  1.  Various  uses  of  Illustration 213 

{  2.  Sources  of  Illustration 217 

Observation  of  nature 217 

,  Of  human  life 218 

Our  Lord's  illustrations 219 

Pure  invention 220 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

VAoa 

Science 221 

History,  news,  anecdotes 223 

Literature  and  art 225 

Scripture 228 

I  3.  Cautions  as  to  the  employment  of  Illustration 228 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

APPLICATION. 

Importance  of  the  Application 230 

Persuasion,  and  three  classes  of  motives 232 

Exciting  emotion 234 


PART    II. 

ARRANGEMENT   OF   A   SERMON. 

CHAPTER  I. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  ARRANGEMENT.  241 

CHAPTER  11. 

THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON. 

I  1.  The  Introduction *...T 248 

Sources  of  introduction 250 

Qualities  of  a  good  introduction 254 

^  2.  Plan  and  Divisions 257 

No  discourse  without  a  plan 257 

Always  seek  the  best  plan 258 

The  Proposition 260 

•  Divisions 262 

Are  divisions  necessary? 262 

Number  of  divisions 266 

Character  of  the  divisions 268 

Order  of  the  divisions 271 

Statement  of  the  divisions 272 

Shall  they  be  announced  beforehand? 273 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

PAGE 

Transitions *. r. 274 

g  3.  Conclusion 277 

Should  be  carefully  prepared 278 

Recapitulation 279 

Application,  of  different  kinds 279 

Concluding  exhortation 284 

Preparation  of  the  conclusion 286 


CHAPTER  III. 

DIFFERENT  SPECIES  OF  SERMONS. 

Three  species  distinguished 288 

f.  1.  Subject-sermons 289 

Z  -.  Text-sermons 293 

{  o.  Expository  sermons 299 

Advantages  and  disadvantages 300 

Suggestions  as  to  construction  and  D^^BijJ^I^II^F^^jwv 302 

List  of  good  specimens v^;w^^«'4>ft0t*Cf»*^*>^^^v^^'^'4^-'-^ 


PARTh  ilj: 


STYLE.'.; 
CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  STYLE. 

I  1.  iVature  and  importance  of  style 319 

I  2.  Means  of  improving  style 324 

Study  of  language  325 

Study  of  literature 329 

Practice,  in  writing  and  speaking 334 

CHAPTER  11. 

PERSPICUITY  OF  STYLE. 

Importance  of  perspicuity 339 

PerBpicuity  as  depending  on  terms « 343 

2 


':J 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

PA6B 

On  the  construction  of  sentences  and  paragraphs 347 

On  general  brevity  and  diffuseness 352 

CHAPTER  III. 

ENERGY  OF  STYLE. 

Nature  of  energy,  and  requisites  thereto 357 

Energy  in  terms 359 

Energy  in  construction 363 

Conciseness  in  order  to  energy 369 

Figures  which  promote  energy 372 

CHAPTER  IV. 

ELEGANCE  OF  STYLE. 

Elegance  in  different  species  of  composition 380 

♦'  in  use  of  terms 386 

«*  in  arrangement  of  words 387 

"  in  use  of  figures 390 

Simplicity  conducive  to  elegance 391 

CHAPTER  V. 

IMAGINATION   IN    ITS  RELATION  TO  ELOQUENCE. 

^  1.  Uses  of  imagination  to  the  orator 895 

g  2.  Means  of  cultivating  the  imagination 400 


PART    IV. 

DELIVERY    OF    SERMONS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  THREE  METHODS  OF  PREPARATION  AND  DELIVERY. 

General  remarks  on  Delivery 406 

§  1.  Reading  sermons ^^^ 

g  2.  Recitation — to  write  and  repeat  from  memory 420 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAQK 

Free  speaking 423 

3.  Extemporaneous  speaking 425 

4.  Brief  History  of  the  three  methods 436 

5.  General    and    special    preparation    for    extemporaneous 

preaching 439 


CHAPTER   II. 

ON   DELIVERY   AS  REGARDS   VOICE. 

§  1.  General  remarks  on  Delivery 444 

^  2.  The  voice  —  its  distinct  powers 450 

§  8.  General  improvement  of  voice 452 

2  4.  Management  of  voice  when  actually  preaching 458 

Note  on  Minister's  Sore  Throat 461 

CHAPTER  III. 

ON  DELIVERY  AS  REGARDS  ACTION. 

Action  as  expressing  thought 464 

Expression  of  countenance 467 

Posture  in  speaking 468 

Gesture  —  use  of  hands 471 

Rules  with  regard  to  action 475 


PART    V. 

CONDUCT   OF   PUBLIC   WORSHIP. 

Worship  proper  often  neglected 476 

§  1.  Reading  Scripture 478 

§  2.  Reading  Hymns 484 

g  3.  Public  Prayer 492 

g  4.  Length  of  Services 499 

g  5.  Pulpit  Decorum 502 

I  6.  Concluding  Remarks 504 


THE 


PEEPARATION  AND  DELIVERY 

OF  SERMONS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

g  1.  Importance  of  Preaching  and  Difficulty  of  Preachinq 
WELL,  g  2.  Nature  of  Eloquence.  ^  3.  Requisites  to  Ef- 
fective Preaching.  §  4.  Origin  of  the  Rules  of  Rhetoric. 
§  5.  Dangers  of  Rhetorical  Studies.  ^  G.  Relation  of  Hom- 
iletics  to  Rhetoric,     §  7.  Literature  of  Homiletics. 

PREACHING  is  characteristic  of  Christianity.  No 
false  religion  has  ever  provided  for  the  regular  and 
frequent  assembling  of  the  masses  of  men,  to  hear  religious 
instruction  and  exhortation."^"  Judaism  had  something 
like  it  in  the  prophets,  and  afterwards  in  the  readers  and 
speakers  of  the  synagogue ;  but  Judaism  was  a  true  religion, 
designed  to  be  developed  into  Christianity. 

The  great  appointed  means  of  spreading  the  good  tidings 
of  salvation  through  Christ  is  preaching  —  words  spoken, 
^Yhether  to  the  individual,  or  to  the  assembly.  And  this, 
nothing  can  supersede.  Printing  has  become  a  mighty 
agency  for  good  and  for  evil ;  and  Christians  should  employ 
it,  with  the  utmost  diligence  and  in  every  possible  way, 

*  Comp.  Vinet,  p.  21. 
2«  17 


18  INTRODUCTIOX. 

for  the  spread  of  truth.  But  printing  can  never  take  the 
place  of  the  living  word.  When  a  man  who  is  apt  in 
teaching,  whose  soul  is  on  fire  with  the  truth  which  he 
trusts  has  saved  him  and  hopes  will  save  others,  speaks  to 
his  fellow-men,  face  to  face,  eye  to  eye,  and  electric  sympa- 
thies flash  to  and  fro  between  him  and  his  hearers,  till  they 
lift  each  other  up,  higher  and  higher,  into  the  iutensest 
thought,  and  the  most  impassioned  emotion — higher  and 
yet  higher,  till  they  are  borne  as  on  chariots  of  fire  above 
the  world, —  there  is  a  power  to  move  men,  to  influence  char- 
acter, life,  destiny,  such  as  no  printed  page  can  ever  possess. 
Pastoral  work  is  of  immense  importance,  and  all  preachers 
should  be  diligent  in  performing  it.  But  it  cannot  take  the 
place  of  preaching,  nor  fully  compensate  for  lack  of  power 
in  the  pulpit.  The  two  help  each  other,  and  neither  of  them 
is  able,  unless  supported  by  the  other,  to  achieve  the  largest 
and  most  blessed  results.  When  he  who  preaches  is  the 
sympathizing  pastor,  the  trusted  counsellor,  the  kindly  and 
honored  friend  of  young  and  old,  of  rich  and  poor,  then 
"  truths  divine  come  mended  from  his  lips,"  and  the  door 
to  men's  hearts,  by  the  magical  power  of  sympathy,  will 
fly  open  at  his  word.  But  on  the  other  hand,  when  he  who 
visits  is  the  preacher,  whose  thorough  knowledge  of  Scrip- 
ture and  elevated  views  of  life,  whose  able  and  impassioned 
discourses  have  carried  conviction  and  commanded  admi- 
ration, and  melted  into  one  the  hearts  of  the  multitude, 
who  is  accustomed  to  stand  before  them  as  the  ambassador 
of  God,  and  is  associated  in  their  minds  with  the  authority 
and  the  sacredness  of  God's  Word,  —  when  lie  comes  to 
speak  with  the  suffering,  the  sorrowing,  the  tempted,  his 
visit  has  a  meaning  and  a  power  of  which  otherwise  it  must 
be  destitute.  If  a  minister  feels  himself  specially  drawn 
towards  either  of  these  departments  of  effort,  let  him  also 
constrain  himself  to  diligence  in  the  other. 

Religious  ceremonies  may  be  instructive  and  impressive. 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

The  older  dispensation  made  much  use  of  thes^,  as  we 
employ  pictures  in  teaching  children.  Even  Christianity, 
which  has  the  minimum  of  ceremony,  illustrates  its  funda- 
mental facts,  and  often  makes  deep  religious  impressions, 
by  its  two  simple  but  expressive  ordinances.  But  these 
are  merely  pictures  to  illustrate,  merely  helps  to  that  great 
work  of  teaching  and  convincing,  of  winning  and  holding 
men,  which  preaching,  made  mighty  by  God's  Spirit,  has 
to  perform. 

It  follows  that  preaching  must  always  be  a  necessity, 
and  good  preaching  a  mighty  power.  In  every  age  of 
Christianity,  since  John  the  Baptist  drcAV  crowds  into  the 
desert,  there  has  been  no  great  religious  movement,  no 
restoration  of  Scripture  truth,  and  reanimation  of  genuine 
piety,  without  new  power  in  preaching,  both  as  cause  and 
as  efiect. 

But  alas !  how  difficult  we  find  it  to  preach  well.  How 
small  a  proportion  of  the  sermons  heard  weekly  throughout 
the  world  are  really  good.  The  dilettanti  men  of  letters 
who  every  now  and  then  fill  the  periodicals  with  sneers  at 
preaching,  no  doubt  judge  most  unkindly  and  unjustly, 
for  they  purposely  compare  ordinary  examples  of  preach- 
ing with  the  finest  specimens  of  literature,  and  they  forget 
their  own  utter  lack,  in  the  one  case,  of  that  sympathetic 
appreciation  without  which  all  literary  and  artistic  judg- 
ment is  necessarily  at  fault ;  but  Ave  who  love  preaching 
and  who  try  to  preach  are  better  aware  than  they  are,  of 
the  deficiencies  which  mar  our  efforts,  and  the  difficulties 
which  attend  our  work.  A  venerable  and  eminently  useful 
minister  once  remarked,  as  he  rose  from  the  couch  on  which 
he  had  been  resting,  "  Well,  I  must  get  ready  to  preach  to- 
night. But  I  can't  preach  —  I  never  did  preach  —  O,  I 
never  heard  anybody  preach." 

And  yet  in  this  work  of  ours,  so  awful  and  so  attractive, 
60  difficult  and  solemnly  responsible  and  yet  so  blessed,  we 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

ought  to  aspire  after  the  highest  excellence.  If  in  other 
varieties  of  public  speaking,  then  most  of  all  m  this,  may 
we  adopt  Cicero's  words  with  reference  to  the  young  orator, 
*'I  will  not  only  exhort,  but  will  even  beseech  him,  to 
labor."  * 

§  2.      NATURE   OF   ELOQUENCE. 

"What  is  good  preaching  ?  Or,  more  generally,  what  is 
eloquence  ?  This  is  not  a  merely  speculative  inquiry,  for 
our  fundamental  views  on  the  subject  will  influence,  to  a 
greater  extent  than  we  may  be  aware,  our  practical  efforts. 
Without  reviewing  the  copious  discussions  of  the  question, 
the  following  statement  maybe  offered: 'Eloquence  is  so 
speaking  as  not  merely  to  convince  the  judgment,  kindle 
the  imagination,  and  move  the  feelings,  but  to  give  a  pow- 
erful impulse  to  the  will.  All  of  these  are  necessary  ele- 
ments of  eloquence,  but  that  which  is  most  characteristicis 
the  last.  There  may  be  instruction  and  conviction  without 
eloquence.  The  fancy  may  be  charmed,  as  by  a  poem  or 
novel,  when  you  would  not  think  of  calling  it  eloquence. 
The  feelings  may  be  deeply  stirred,  by  a  pathetic  tale  or  a 
harrowing  description,  but  no  corresponding  action  being 
proposed,  we  do  not  speak  of  it  as  eloquence.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  not  strictly  correct  to  say  that  "  eloquiaice  is  so 
speaking  as  to  carry  your  point ;  "  for  there  may  be  an 
invincible  prejudice,  or  other  insuperable  obstacle,  as,  for 
example,  a  preacher  may  be  truly  eloquent,  without  actu- 
ally inducing  his  hearers  to  repent.  There  must  be  a  pow- 
erful impulse  upon  the  will ;  the  hearers  must  feel  smitten, 
Btirred,  moved  to,  or  at  least  moved  towards,  some  action 
or  determination  to  act.  Words  that  by  carrying  convic- 
tion, kindling  imagination,  and  arousing  emotion,  produce 
such  an  eflTect  as  this  upon  the  will,  are  rightly  called  elo- 
quent words.     Augustine  says,  Veritas  pateat,  Veritas  pla* 

*  Cic.  de  Or.  II,  §  85. 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

ceai,  Veritas  vioveat,  "Make  the  truth  plain,  make  it 
pleasing,  make  it  moving," 

Eloquence,  then,  is  a  practical  thing.  Unless  it  aims 
at  real  and  practical  results,  it  is  spurious.  Mere  holiday 
eloquence  does  not  deserve  the  name.  And  the  preacher 
who  kindles  the  fancy  of  his  hearers  merely  for  their  delec- 
tation, Avho  stirs  their  passions  merely  to  give  them  the 
luxury  of  emotion,  is  not  eloquent.  There  is  too  much 
preaching  of  just  this  sort.  Besides  vain  pretenders  who 
care  only  to  please,  there  are  good  men,  \Yho,  if  they  can 
say  very  handsome  things,  and  can  make  the  people  feel, 
imagine  that  they  are  preaching  well,  without  inquiring 
why  the  people  feel,  and  to  what  truly  religious  ends  the 
feeling  is  directed.  It  is  a  shame  to  see  what  vapid  and 
worthless  stuff  is  often  called  eloquence,  in  newspaper  puffs, 
and  in  the  talk  of  half-educated  younglings,  returning  from 
church. 

Eloquence  is  a  serious  thing.  You  cannot  say  that  a 
discourse,  or  a  paragraph,  is  very  amusing  and  very  elo- 
quent. The  speaker  who  is  to  deserve  this  high  name, 
must  have  moral  earnestness.  He  may  sometimes  indulge, 
where  it  is  appropriate,  in  the  light  play  of  delicate  humor, 
or  give  forth  sparks  of  wit,  but  these  must -be  entirely  in- 
cidental, and  subordinate  to  a  thorough  seriousness  and 
earnestness.  Theremin,  in  his  useful  little  treatise,  "  Elo- 
quence a  Virtue,"  insists  that  eloquence  belongs  to  the 
ethical  sciences,  the  character  and  spirit  of  the  sjDeaker 
being  the  main  thing.  The  theory  is  an  exaggeration,  but 
contains  an  important  element  of  truth,  as  Quintilian 
already  had  partly  observed.* 

"  What  is  the  true  ground  of  eloquence,"  says  Vinet,  "  if 

*  Quint.  Int.  XII,  1,  "  An  orator  is  a  good  man.  skilled  in  speak- 
ing." This,  he  says,  was  Cato's  definition.  Prof.  Shedd's  Intro- 
duction to  Theremin  gives  some  very  good  thoughts  on  the  nature 
of  eloquence. 


22  INTRODUCTio^^ 

it  is  not  commonplace?  When  eloquence  is  combined 
with  high  philosophical  considerations,  as  in  many  mo- 
dern examples,  we  are  at  first  tempted  to  attribute  to 
philosophy  the  impression  we  receive  from  it ;  but  elo- 
quence is  something  more  popular  ;  it  is  the  power  of 
making  the  primitive  chords  of  the  soul  (its  purely 
human  elements)  vibrate  within,  us  —  it  is  in  this,  and 
nothing  else,  that  we  acknowledge  the  orator."  *  It 
is  impossible  to  be  eloquent  on  any  subject,  save  by 
associating  it  with  such  ideas  as  that  of  mother,  child, 
friends,  home,  country,  heaven,  and  the  like ;  all  of  them 
familiar,  and,  in  themselves,  commonplace.  The  speaker's 
task  is,  by  his  grouping,  illustration,  &c.,  and  by  his  own 
contagious  emotion,  to  invest  these  familiar  ideas  with  fresh 
interest,  so  that  they  may  reassert  their  power  over  the 
hearts  of  his  hearers.  He  who  runs  after  material  of  dis- 
course that  shall  be  absolutely  new,  may  get  credit  for 
originality,  and  be  amply  admired,  but  he  will  not  exert 
the  living  power  which  belongs  to  eloquence.  The  preacher 
can  be  really  eloquent  only  when  he  speaks  of  those  vital 
gospel  truths  which  have  necessarily  become  familiar.  A 
just  rhetoric,  if  there  were  no  higher  consideration,  would 
require  that  a  preacher  shall  preach  the  gospel  — shall  hold 
on  to  the  old  truths,  and  labor  to  clothe  them  with  new 
interest  and  power. 

§  3.       REQUISITES   TO    EFFECTIVE   PREACHING. 

They  may  be  stated  as  four,  viz.  piety,  natural  gifts, 
knowledge,  skill. 

(1.)  Piety.  Men  sometimes  do  good  by  preaching  who 
turn  out  to  have  been  destitute  of  piety.  It  is  one  of  the 
many  wonderful  ways  in  which  God  brings  good  out  of 
evil.     But  such  cases  are  exceptional,  and  as  a  rule,  the 

*  Vinet,  Horn.  p.  176,  note. 


INTRODUCTION'.  v  23 

prime  requisite  to  efficiency  in  preaching  is  earnest  piety. 
This  inspires  the  preacher  himself  with  ardent  zeal,  and 
keeps  the  flame  alive  amid  all  the  icy  indifibrence  by 
which  he  will  so  often  be  encompassed.  This  gains  for 
him  the  good-will  and  sympathy  of  his  hearers,  the  most 
ungodly  of  whom  will  feel  that  devout  earnestness  on  hi3 
part  is  becoming,  and  entitles  him  to  respect.  And  this  is 
authorized  to  hope  for  the  blessing  of  God  upon  the  labors 
which  it  prompts.  ]\Iuch  false  theory  and  bad  practice  in 
preaching  is  connected  with  a  failure  to  apprehend  the 
fundamental  importance  of  piety  in  the  preacher.  As  was 
said  above  on  a  kindred  topic,  just  rhetorical  principles,  as 
well  as  other  and  far  higher  considerations,  imperatively 
require  that  a  preacher  of  the  gospel  shall  cultivate  per- 
sonal piety.     It  is  had  rhetoric  to  neglect  it. 

(2.)  Natural  gifts.  The  preacher  needs  the  capacity  for 
clear  thinking,  with  strong  feelings,  and  a  vigorous  imag- 
ination ;  also  capacity  for  expression,  and  the  power  of 
forcible  utterance.  Many  other  gifts  help  his  usefulness, 
these  are  well-nigh  indispensable  to  any  high  degree  of 
efficiency.  Each  of  these  can  be  improved  almost  indefi- 
nitely, some  of  them  developed  in  one  who  had  not  been 
conscious  of  possessing  them ;  but  all  must  exist  as  natural 
gifts. 

(3.)  Knowledge.  There  must  be  knowledge  of  religious 
truth,  and  of  such  things  as  throw  light  upon  it ;  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature  in  its  relations  to  religious  truth, 
and  of  human  life  in  its  actual  conditions  around  us.  It 
was  a  favorite  idea  of  Cicero  that  the  orator  ought  to  know 
everything.  There  is  of  course  no  knowledge  which  a 
preacher  might  not  make  useful.  We  may  thankfully 
recognize  the  fact  that  some  men  do  good  who  have  very 
slender  attainments,  and  yet  may  insist  that  it  should  be 
the  preacher's  lowest  standard  to  surpass,  in  respect  of 
knowledge,  the  great  majority  of  those  who  hear  him,  and 


24  INTRODUCTION. 

should  be  his  sacred  ambition  to  know  all  that  he  can  learn 
by  life-long  and  prayerful  endeavor. 

Piety  furnishes  motive  poAver ;  natural  gifts,  cultivated 
as  far  as  possible,  furnish  means ;  knowledge  gives  material ; 
and  there  remains 

(4.)    Skill.     This   does   not  refer  merely  to  style  and 
delivery,  but  also  to  the  collection,  choice,  and  arrange- 
ment of  materials.     All    who   preach    eminently  well  — 
and  the  same  thing  is  true  of  secular  speakers  —  will  be 
found,  with  scarcely  an  exception,  to  have  labored  much  to 
acquire  skill.     Henry  Clay,  in  an  address  to  some  law-stu- 
dents at  Albany  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  mentioned 
that  during  his  early  life  in  Kentucky,  he  *'  commenced, 
and  continued  for  years,  the  practice  of  daily  reading  and 
speaking  upon  the  contents  of  some  historical  or  scientific 
book.     These  off-hand  efforts  were  made  sometimes  in  a 
cornfield,  at  others  in  the  forest,  and  not  unfrequently  in 
some  distantbarn,  with  the  horse  and  the  ox  for  my  auditors." 
We  are  told  that  the  Indian  orators  of  the  Six  Nations 
were  known  to  practise  their  speeches  beside  a  clear  pool. 
''Patrick  Henry,  the  most  illustrious  example  of  natural 
oratory,  so  far  as  there  is  any  such,  went  through  a  course 
of  training  in  his  daily  studies  of  human  nature  as  drawn 
out  by  himself  in  his  little  shop,  his  every-day  trials  on  his 
lingering  customers  of  the  power  of  words,  his  deep  and 
enthusiastic  investigations  into  history,  and  particularly 
his  patient  and  continued  study  of  the  harangues  of  Livy 
and  the  elaborate  translations  he  made  of  them,  which,  to 
say  the  least,  is  very  uncommon."  *     Any  one  whose  good 
fortune  it  has  been  to  be  intimate  with  some  of  those  noble 
Baptist  preachers,  who  beginning  with  hardly  any  educa- 
tion have  worked  their  way  up  to  the  highest  excellence  in 
their  calling,  will  have  seen  ample  proofs,  particularly  in 
their  unrestrained  private  conversation,  that  their  power 

*  Day's  Art  of  Discourse,  p.  18. 


INTRODUCTION.  25 

of  clear  and  precise  expression,  and  of  forcible  and  attrac- 
tive delivery,  is  the  result  of  sharp,  critical  attention,  of 
earnest  and  long-continued  labor.  The  difference  bet\Yeen 
skill  and  the  lack  of  it  in  speaking,  is  almost  as  great  as  in 
handling  tools,  those,  for  example,  of  the  carpenter  or  the 
blacksmith.  And  while  no  real  skill  can  be  acquired 
without  practice  —  according  to  the  true  saying,  "The 
only  way  to  learn  to  preach  is  to  preach"  —  yet  mere 
practice  will  never  bring  the  highest  skill ;  it  must  be 
heedful,  thoughtful  practice,  with  close  observation  of 
others  and  sharp  watching  of  ourselves,  and  controlled  by 
good  sense  and  good  taste. 

Now  in  respect  of  skill,  preaching  is  an  art;  and  while 
art  cannot  create  the  requisite  powers  of  mind  or  body, 
nor  supply  their  place  if  really  absent,  it  can  develop 
and  improve  them,  and  aid  in  using  them  to  the  best 
advantage.  To  gain  skill,  then,  is  the  object  of  rhetorical 
studies,  skill  in  the  construction  and  in  the  delivery  of  dit^- 
course. 

§  4.       ORIGIN    OF   THE    RULES   OF    RHETORIC. 

(1.)  The  rules  of  Rhetoric  are  properly  the  result  of 
induction.  They  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  if  they  had 
been  drawn  up  by  would-be  wise  men,  who  undertook  to 
tell,  on  general  principles,  how  one  ought'io  speak.  But 
they  simply  result  from  much  thoughtful  observation  of 
the  way  in  which  men  do  speak,  when  they  speak  really 
well.  Every  one  will  sometimes  see  occasion  to  depart 
from  these  rules ;  but  he  ought  to  understand  that  in  dis- 
regarding the  "rules  of  Rhetoric,"  he  is  not  nobly  spurning 
artificial  fetters  and  barriers,  but  simply  turning  aside,  for 
the  time,  and  for  good  reason,  from  the  path  in  which  it  is 
usually  found  best  to  walk.  And  to  do  this  will  be  wise 
or  not  wise,  according  as  there  is  real  occasion  for  it,  and 
it  is  well  managed.  So  too,  v/e  notice,  men  of  sense  ofter 
3 


26  INTRODUCTION. 

exactly  conform  to  these  rules,  without  knowing  anything 
about  them ;  for  this  is  only  saying  that  they  speak  exactly 
as  men  of  sense  usually  do.* 

(2.)  What  we  call  rules  are  but  the  convenient  expres- 
sion of  a  principle.  They  put  the  princi23le  into  a  compact 
form,  so  as  to  be  easily  remembered  and  readily  applied. 
But  the  rule,  however  judiciously  framed,  can  never  be  as 
flexible  as  the  principle  it  represents.  There  will  therefore 
be  cases,  and  as  regards  some  rules  many  cases,  in  which 
one  may  violate  the  rule  and  yet  be  really  conforming  to  the 
principle,  these  being  cases  in  which  the  principle  would 
bend,  and  adapt  itself  to  peculiar  conditions,  while  the 
rule  cannot  bend.  This  consideration  explains  many  of 
the  instances  in  which  a  speaker  produces  a  powerful 
effect  though  utterly  violating  the  rules  of  rhetoric.  Other 
such  instances  are  explained  by  the  sort  of  shock  pro- 
duced by  a  departure  from  what  is  usual,  as  the  sleeping 
miller  will  wake  when  the  mill  stops.  And  in  still  other 
cases  the  effect  is  produced  by  a  man's  power  in  other 
respects,  in  spite  of  the  particular  violation  of  rule. 

§  5.       DANGERS    OF   RHETORICAL   STUDIES. 

(1.)  Thinking  more  of  the  form  than  the  matter.  Kheto- 
ric  has  to  do  with  the  use  we  make  of  material,  the  choice, 
adaptation,  arrangement,  expression.  But  after  all,  the 
material  itself  is  more  important.  We  hold  that  Demos- 
thenes did  not  mean  to  contradict  this,  when  he  said  (if  ho 
ever  did  in  fact  say  it),  that  the  first  thing,  second  thing, 
third  thing  in  speaking  is  delivery.  He  took  the  other 
for  granted.  No  man  has  ever  surpassed  Demosthenes,  in 
thorough  mastery  of  the  subjects  upon  which  he  spoke. 
But  delivery  had  been  with  him  a  matter  of  peculiar  diffi- 
culty, his  deficiencies  in  that  respect  had  defeated  his  early 

*  Comp.  Wiiately's  Rhetoric,  p.  33  ff. 


INTRODUCTION.  27 

attempts,  and  his  subsequent  excellence  had  been  gained 
only  by  enormous  labor  ;  it  was  natural  that  he  should  lay 
stress  upon  its  importance,  supposing  that  no  man  of  sense 
could  overlook  the  necessity  of  being  fully  acquainted  with 
his  subject.  Now  the  things  which  ought  most  to  be  thought 
of  by  the  preacher,  are  piety  and  knowledge,  and  the  bless- 
ing of  God.  Skill,  however  valuable,  is  far  less  important 
than  these  ;  and  there  is  danger  that  rhetorical  studies  will 
cause  men  to  forget  that  such  is  the  case.  It  is  lamentable 
to  see  how  often  the  remarks  upon  preaching  made  by 
preachers  themselves,  in  conversation  and  in  newspaper 
critiques,  are  confined  to  a  discussion  of  the  performance 
and  the  performer.  Unsympathizing  listeners  or  readers 
have,  in  such  cases,  too  much  ground  for  concluding,  that 
preachers  are  anxious  only  to  display  skill,  and  gain  ora- 
torical reputation. 

(2.)  Imitation.  All  are  aware  that  there  is  both  a  con- 
scious and  an  unconscious  imitation.  That  which  is  uncon- 
scious is  of  course  not  so  blameworthy,  but  it  cannot  fail  to 
be  injurious,  and  it  is  a  subtle  evil  which  should  be  guarded 
against  with  the  sharpest  self-inspection.  Every  one  ob- 
serves, too,  that  imitators  are  especially  apt  to  imitate  a 
man's  faults.  The  reason  is  easily  seen.  The  excellencies 
of  a  good  speaker  are  apt  to  be  symmetrical,  while  his 
faults  are  salient,  prominent.  The  latter,  therefore,  will 
most  readily  attract  unconscious  imitation.  As  to  the  con 
scious  imitator,  he  is  sure  to  be  a  superficial  observer,  who 
will  think  that  what  he  notices  most  in  some  admired 
speaker  is  the  secret  of  his  power,  and  will  go  to  imitating 
that.  Besides,  it  is  easier  to  ape  the  single,  salient  fault, 
than  the  symmetrical  combination  of  many  ex-cellencies. 

Is  the  danger  of  imitation  increased  by  attendance  upon 
institutions  of  learning  ?  Hardly.  He  who  is  so  suscep- 
tible on  the  one  hand,  or  on  the  other  hand  so  silly,  as  to 
fall  readily  in^o  it,  will  find  some  one  to  imitate,  wherever 


28  INTRODUCTION. 

he  may  be.  Every  country  district  has  some  favorite 
preacher,  whom  others  around  may  be  seen  to  imitate. 
When  many  of  these  imitators  are  gathered  at  a  public 
institution,  the  men  they  imitate  are  fewer  and  more  gene- 
rally known,  and  therefore  the  fact  attracts  more  attention. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  are  more  likely  to  have  pointed 
out  to  them  the  danger  and  the  evils  of  imitation,  so  as 
utterly  to  eschew  that  which  is  conscious,  and  promptly 
to  correct  the  unconscious,  when  made  aware  of  it.  Nor 
is  there  any  greater  danger  of  such  imitation  at  a  theologi- 
cal institution  than  at  a  college  or  university.  Still,  some 
men  are  very  liable  to  this  fault,  and  when  about  to  hear 
the  same  speaker  several  times  a  week  for  many  months, 
all  ought  to  be  on  their  guard  against  imitating  his  pecu- 
liarities.* 

(3.)  Artificiality.  There  is  much  artificiality  which 
ought  not  to  be  called  by  the  odious  name  of  affectation. 
The  speaker's  motives  are  good ;  he  merely  errs  in  judg- 
ment and  taste.  But  a  great  error  it  is.  In  all  speaking, 
especially  in  preaching,  naturalness,  genuineness,  even 
though  awkward,  is  really  more  effective  for  all  the  high- 
est ends,  than  the  most  elegant  artificiality.  "  But  it  is 
the  highest  art  to  conceal  art."  Nay,  no  art  can  conceal 
art.  We  may  not  perceive  it,  but  we  dimly,  instinctively 
feel  that  there  is  something  the  matter,  and  perhaps  won- 
der what  it  is  ;  somehow,  the  preacher's  well-meant  efforts 

■^  "  Melanchthon  carried  one  shoulder  higher  than  the  other,  and 
the  pupils  believed  themselves  ISIelanchthons  if  they  imitated  his 
posture."  Hagenbach,  Homiletik,  s.  142.  Spurgeon's  students  are 
constantly  accused  of  imitating  him.  Those  who  are  anxious  on  this 
subject  ought  to  be  apprised  of  another  danger,  which  they  may  not 
have  thought  of.  A  year  or  two  ago,  a  certain  professor  heard  one 
of  his  students  preach  several  times  at  a  protracted  meeting,  and 
then  preached  himself.  In  the  midst  of  the  sermon,  he  caught  him- 
self distinctly  imitating  certain  peculiar  tones  of  his  esteemed  young 
brother.    Think  of  that  !    The  professors  may  imitate  the  students  1 


INTRODUCTION.  29 

are  failing  to  reach  their  aim.  The  danger  of  artificiality 
in  speaking  is  very  great.  When  one  begins,  he  is  apt  to 
feel  a^vk^vard  in  the  new  and  strange  situation.  As  one 
unaccustomed  to  riding  on  horseback  must  learn  to  sit 
naturally,  and  feel  at  ease,  in  the  saddle,  so  very  many 
speakers,  perhaps  all,  have  to  learn  to  he  natural.  They 
must  not  only  reject  all  intentional  artificiality,  but  must 
carefully  guard  against  that  which  is  undesigned  and  un- 
conscious. To  forget  self,  because  full  of  living  desire  to 
do  men  good,  is  the  great  means  of  being  natural.  It  fol- 
lows that  a  preacher  ought  never  to  preach  merely  for 
practice ;  this  will  inevitably  tend  to  encourage  artificial- 
ity. The  first  few  etlbrts  of  a  young  man  —  which  will 
often  go  much  farther  than  he  is  at  the  time  aware  to  form 
his  habits  for  life  —  ought  to  be  genuine,  bona  fide  preach- 
ing. If  he  ever  preaches  in  the  presence  of  none  but  his 
fellow-students  and  instructors,  it  ought  to  be  only  upon 
a  subject  thoroughly  suited  to  their  religious  wants,  and 
with  a  most  earnest  and  prayerful  effort  to  do  them  good.* 
As  regards  all  that  pertains  to  preaching,  and  especially 
delivery,  our  efibrts  at  rhetorical  improvement  must  be 
mainly  negative.  We  endeavor  to  gain  correct  general 
principles,  and  some  idea  of  the  errors  and  faults  to  which 
speakers  are  generally  liable.  We  then  speak,  aiming  to 
be  guided  by  these  principles,  and  to  correct  our  faults  as 
they  may  arise.  It  is  unwise  to  set  up  at  the  outset  some 
standard  of  excellence,  and  aim  to  conform  to  that.  If  one 
should  take  a  fancy  that  cedar  trees  are  more  beautiful 
than  oaks,  and  attempt  to  trim  his  oaks  into  the  shape, 
and  color  them   into  the  hue,  of  cedars,  the  result  could 

*  It  is  believed  that  the  plan  of  causing  students  to  preach  before 
the  class  results,  upon  the  whole,  in  more  harm  than  good,  and 
that  it  ought  to  be  avoided.  Let  them  preach  where  it  can  be  rea? 
preaching,'  or  not  at  all.  Even  the  debating  society  proposes  a  pre 
gent  end  to  be  gained,  and  awakens  some  living  interest. 


30  INTRODUCTION. 

only  be  ridiculous.  Let  the  young  cedar  grow  as  a  cedar, 
and  the  young  oak  as  an  oak,  but  straighten,  prune,  im- 
prove each  of  them  into  the  best  possible  tree  of  its  kind. 
And  so  as  to  speaking,  be  always  yourself,  your  actual, 
natural  self,  but  yourself  developed,  corrected,  improved 
into  the  very  best  you  are  by  nature  capable  of  becoming. 

§  6.       RELATION    OF    HOMILETICS   TO    RHETORIC. 

The  Greek  word  homilia  signifies  conversation,  mutual 
talk,  and  so  familiar  discourse.  The  Greek  writer  Pho- 
tius  (9th  cent.)  says  of  Chrysostom's  expository  sermons 
on  Genesis,  that  he  finds  the  book  bearing  the  name  of  dis- 
courses, but  that  they  are  much  more  like  homilies  (talks), 
because  he  so  often  speaks  as  if  seeing  the  hearers  before 
him,  asks  questions,  and  answers,  and  makes  promises,  &c., 
and  because  they  have  not  the  formal  arrangement  of  dis- 
courses.* The  Latin  word  sermo  (from  which  we  get  ser- 
mon) has  the  same  sense,  of  conversation,  talk,  discussion, 
&c.  It  is  instructive  to  observe  that  the  early  Christians 
did  not  apply  to  their  public  teachings  the  names  given  to 
the  orations  of  Demosthenes  and  Cicero,  but  called  them 
talks,  familiar  discourses.  From  this  word  homily  has 
been  derived  the  term  homiletics,  as  denoting  the  science 
or  art  of  Christian  discourse,  or  a  treatise  on  that  subject, 
embracing  all  that  pertains  to  the  preparation  and  delivery 
of  sermons.  Homiletics  may  be  called  a  branch  of  rhe- 
toric, or  a  kindred  art.  Those  fundamental  principles, 
which  have  their  basis  in  human  nature,  are  of  course  the 
same  in  both  cases,  and  this  being  so,  it  seems  clear  that 
we  must  regard  homiletics  as  rhetoric  applied  to  this  par- 
ticular kind  of  speaking.  Still,  preaching  is  properly  very 
different  from  secular  discourse,  as  to  the  primary  source 
of  its  materials,  as  to  the  directness  and  simplicity  of  style 

*  See  Suiccr's  Thesaurus,  II,  p.  474. 


INTRODUCTION.  31 

which  become  the  preacher,  and  the  unworldly  motives 
by  which  he  ought  to  be  influenced.  And  while  these  and 
other  peculiarities  do  not  render  it  proper  to  treat  homi- 
letics  as  entirely  distinct  from  rhetoric,*  they  ought  to  be 
constantly  borne  in  mind  by  the  student  of  homiletics  and 
by  the  working  preacher.f 

§  7.      LITERATURE   OF   HOMILETICS. 

It  is  proposed  to  mention  the  works  which  are  believed 
to  be  most  worthy  of  the  student's  attention. 

I.      General  Works  on  Rhetoric. 

Aristotle's  Ehetoric  ought  by  all  means  to  be  studied, 
in  a  translation  (as  that  of  Bohn's  Library),  if  it  cannot 
be  read  in  the  original.  Longinus  on  the  Sublime  is  cele- 
brated and  interesting.  The  other  extant  works  of  Greek 
rhetoricians  are  not  of  the  highest  value. 

Cicero's  treatises  on  Oratory  (de  Oratore,  Orator,  and 
Brutus)  are  quite  unsystematic  and  incomplete,  but  are 
full  of  striking  thoughts  and  useful  suggestions.  Quin- 
tilian's  "  Instruction  of  the  Orator  "  is  a  systematic  trea- 
tise on  grammar  and  rhetoric,  abounding  in  good  sense, 
and  more  valuable  than  those  of  Cicero.  Horace's  Ars 
Poetica  is  well  known  to  contain  many  capital  precepts 
as  to  composition  of  every  kind.  The  Dialogue  on  Ora- 
tors, usually  printed  with  the  works  of  Tacitus,  is  not  now 
believed  to  have  been  written  by  him,  but  was  written  in 
his  age,  and  is  in  certain  respects  quite  valuable. 

These  great  Greek  and  Roman  works  are  not  superseded 
by  the  modern  books  which  have   drawn  from   them  so 

*  As  proposed  by  Kidder,  p.  19  ff. 

f  Nothing  would  really  be  gained  by  substituting,  as  some  Ger- 
man writers  propose,  the  term  keryktik,  from  the  Greek  lurux,  a 
herald,  and  in  the  N.  T.  a  preacher. 


32  INTRODUCTION. 

largely,  and  they  ought  to  be  carefully  studied  by  all  who 
desire  to  be  well  acquainted  with  Rhetoric.  It  is  too  com- 
mon to  eulogize  famous  books,  and  yet  never  read  them. 

Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric  contains  much 
thorough  discussion  and  judicious  suggestion,  and  is  of 
permanent  value.  Whately's  Rhetoric  is  believed  to  be 
the  best  treatise  for  practical  use  that  has  appeared.  Espe- 
cially valuable  are  the  portions  on  Argument  and  on  Style. 
Theremin's  Eloquence  a  Virtue,  translated  by  Shedd,  with 
a  good  Introduction,  is  a  small  volume  which  may  be  read 
with  great  profit.  Quackenbos'  Composition  and  Rhetoric 
is  a  good  school-book,  and  may  also  be  used  with  great 
advantage  in  self-training  by  those  who  wish  to  supply 
deficiencies  of  early  education.  Bain's  Composition  and 
Rhetoric  (1866)  trea^  with  great  fulness  the  nature  and 
use  of  rhetorical  figures,  and  the  subject  of  style  in  general ; 
and  appears  to  contemplate  mainly  the  composition  of  sci- 
entific w^orks,  history,  and  poetry.  Haven's  Rhetoric  (1869) 
is  almost  entirely  confined  to  style,  including  words  and 
figures.  Day's  Art  of  Discourse  (2d  ed.  1868)  gives  unusual 
attention  to  the  Invention  of  Materials,  and  presents  much 
that  is  quite  valuable. 

Goodrich's  British  Eloquence  is  an  admirable  collection 
of  speeches,  with  introductions  and  notes  enabling  one  to 
understand  them,  and  very  useful  to  the  student  of  elo- 
quence. And  after  all,  nothing  in  respect  of  secular  oratory 
is  so  valuable  as  the  thorough  study  of  Demosthenes,  even 
in  a  translation.  It  should  be  preceded  and  accompanied 
by  Vol.  XI  of  Grote's  Greece. 

II.     Works  on  Homiletics. 

Chrysostom  on  the  Priesthood,  is  a  chariitmg  little  work, 
and  contains  several  excellent  remarks  on  Preaching. 
(Some  of  these  are  quoted  b;*'  K^^der,  p.  76.)  The  original 
may  be  had  in  a  separate  volume,  and  it  has  been  newly 


INTF.ODUCTION.  33 

translated  into  English  by  B.  H.  Cowper.  Augustine  was 
a  teacher  of  Ehetoric  before  his  conversion,  and  in  his 
treatise  De  Doctrina  Christiana,  "On  Christian  Teaching," 
he  devotes  Book  IV  to  instruction  in  the  "  setting  forth  " 
of  Christian  truth,  giving  many  interesting  and  useful 
thoughts.  This  book  is  translated  in  the  Biblical  Eeposi- 
tory,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  569,  and  a  good  analysis  of  its  contents 
given  by  Moule,  p.  169  (see  below). 

French  Writers.  Fenelon's  Dialogues  on  Eloquence 
are  very  readable,  and  excellent  on  some  points.  They  are 
given  in  the  good  collection  entitled  "  The  Preacher  and 
Pastor,"  New  York,  1849,  and  in  many  other  forms. 
Claude's  Essay  on  the  Composition  of  a  Sermon  is  quite 
valuable,  and  has  exerted  a  wide  influence.  The  author 
was  a  great  Protestant  preacher  in  the  age  of  Louis  XIV. 
The  best  of  the  many  editions  in  English  of  his  brief  essay, 
is  that  of  the  famous  Eobert  Eobinson,  with  copious  notes, 
crammed  with  curious  learning.  Vinet's  Homiletics  is  a 
posthumous  and  incomplete  work,  but  on  some  subjects  is 
the  best  treatise  on  Homiletics  in  existence,  particularly  on 
the  selection  and  interpretation  of  Texts,  and  on  subjects 
of  Pulpit  Discourse.  Monod's  Lecture  on  the  Delivery  of 
Sermons,  is  singularly  good.  Adolphe  Monod  was  one  of 
the  first  pulpit  orators  of  the  present  century,  and  delivered 
this  lecture  when  Professor  in  the  French  Protestant  Theo- 
logical School  at  Montauban.  It  is  published  as  an  Appen- 
dix in  Fish's  Select  Discourses  from  the  French  and  German. 
The  little  work  of  Coquerel,  Observations  sur  la  Predication 
(Observations  on  Preaching),  Paris,  1860,  has  not  been 
translated,  but  ought  to  be.  It  is  a  spirited  treatise,  pun- 
gent, suggestive,  and  quite  useful. 

German.  It  is  proper  to  mention  the  most  recent  and 
valuable  treatises.  Palmer's  Homiletik  is  by  a  popular 
Lutheran  writer;  the  5th  edition  (1869)  is  considerably 
enlarged.     Hagenbach,  the  celebrated  writer  on  Church 


34  INTRODUCTION. 

History,  and  belonging  to  the  "  Reformed,"  or  Calvinistic 
party  in  Germany,  has  a  small  volume,  Liturgik  und 
Homiletik,  containing  much  that  is  quite  good.  The  Ger- 
mans usually  discuss  Homiletics  in  treatises  on  "  Practical 
Theology  "  in  general.  The  most  recent,  Otto's  Evange- 
lische  Praktische  Theologie  (1869)  is  unusually  full  on 
this  su-bject,  and  on  several  branches  of  it  is  decidedly  able. 
The  Praktische  Theologie  of  Ebrard  (1854)  is  compara- 
tively meagre  on  Homiletics,  but  has  spirited  remarks  and 
suggestions.* 

ENGLISH   AND    AMERICAN. 

Campbell's  Lectures  on  Pulpit  Eloquence  are  not  un- 
worthy of  the  author  of  the  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  being 
judicious  and  useful,  while  quite  brief.  They  are  given  in 
**  The  Preacher  and  Pastor  "  (see  above  under  Fenelon). 
Porter's  Lectures  on  Homiletics  are  very  sensible  and 
valuable,  but  not  a  complete  treatise,  many  important 
topics  being  entirely  omitted.  The  author  was  Professor  at 
Andover,  and  the  first  American  who  prepared  a  system- 
atic work  on  Homiletics.  It  is  out  of  print  in  this  country, 
but  an  English  republication  can  still  be  had.  Gresley's 
Treatise  on  Preaching  has  been  reprinted  in  this  country. 
The  author  was  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  his  volume  (a  series  of  Letters)  is  specially  adapted 
to  the  wants  of  the  English  clergy,  but  is  decidedly  valua- 
ble to  all,  and  written  in  an  agreeable  style.  John  Angell 
James'  Earnest  Ministry,  a  widely  circulated  and  useful 
book,  discusses  several  questions  of  Homiletics. 

Ripley's  Sacred  Rhetoric,  with  Ware's  Hints  on  Extem- 
poraneous Preaching,  is  a  useful  little  volume,  giving  many 
excellent  practical  rules  and  suggestions,  but  limited  in  its 
range  of  topics,  and  frequently  too  brief  in  the  treatment 

*Tbat  of  Nitzsch  is  frequently  commended,  but  the  present  writer 
cannot  speak  of  it  from  personal  knowledge. 


INTRODUCTION.  35 

of  them.  The  author  is  Professor  at  Newton,  and  well 
known  for  his  practical  commentaries.  Thoughts  ou 
Preaching,  by  James  W.  Alexander,  is  a  posthumous  vol- 
ume, consisting  of  Review  articles.  Letters,  and  a  series  of 
detached  observations  which  the  author  was  collecting  for 
a  proposed  treatise  on  Homiletics.  It  contains  a  number 
of  highly  valuable  thoughts.  Henry  Rogers  has  an  Essay 
on  the  British  Pulpit,  in  his  volume  entitled  "  Reason  and 
Faith,  and  other  Essays,"  which  make  some  excellent 
points.  Papers  on  Preaching  and  Public  Speaking,  by  a 
Wykehamist,  (London,  1861,)  is  a  small  but  excellent 
work,  unsystematic,  but  sensible  and  sprightly. 

Of  the  most  recent  works,  Waylaud's  Letters  on  the 
Ministry  of  the  Gospel,  1864,  is  an  admirable  little  volume. 
There  are  also  good  thoughts  on  Preaching  in  his  Princi- 
ples and  Practices  of  the  Baptists.  Kidder's  Homiletics, 
1864,  is  by  a  Professor  in  the  (Methodist)  Biblical  Insti- 
tute at  Evansville,  Illinois.  It  is  more  complete  in  its 
range  of  topics  than  any  other  treatise  on  Homiletics,  is 
for  the  most  part  well  arranged,  and  contains  much  that  is 
useful ;  but  it  is  very  unequal  in  its  discussions,  and  the 
views  presented  of  some  subjects  are  regarded  as  objection- 
able. There  is  an  excellent  Appendix  on  the  Literature, 
and  many  interesting  and  valuable  extracts  are  given  in 
another  Appendix,  or  scattered  throughout  the  book. 
Potter's  Sacred  Eloquence,  Dublin,  1866,  is  a  Roman 
Catholic  work,  and  contains  some  good  remarks,  with  vari- 
ous striking  quotations  from  Catholic  writers.  Shedd's 
Homiletics  and  Pastoral  Duties,  1867,  discusses  certain 
topics  with  the  author's  well-known  power  of  analysis  and 
vigor  of  statement.  It  is  an  excellent  book  to  be  read  by 
those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  subject  in  general,  or  to 
be  studied  in  connection  with  some  systematic  treatise. 
Lamps,  Pitchers  and  Trumpets,  by  E.  P.  Hood,  London, 
1868,  is  the  whimsical  title  given  to  Lectures  before  the 


36  INTRODUCTION. 

students  of  Spurgeon's  College.  It  is  not  at  all  a  complete 
or  systematic  treatise,  nor  anywhere  strikingly  able  ;  but  it 
is  highly  entertaining,  and  full  of  quaint  extracts,  from  all 
manner  of  sources.  It  has  been  republished  in  America. 
Discussions  in  Theology,  by  Thomas  11.  Skinner,  (New 
York,  1868,)  contains  two  papers  on  Preaching  which  are 
very  instructive,  and  unusually  devotional  in  their  tone. 
The  author  is  the  translator  of  Vinet,  and  Professor  in  the 
Union  Tlieological  Seminary,  New  York.  Hoppin's  Office 
and  Work  of  the  Christian  Ministry  (New  York,  1869)  is 
divided  between  Preaching  and  the  Pastoral  Office.  The 
treatise  on  Preaching  is  in  its  arrangement  very  faulty  and 
inconvenient ;  but  the  particular  topics  are  discussed  with 
marked  ability  and  sound  judgment,  and  show  a  good 
acquaintance  with  the  literature  of  the  subject.  The  author 
is  Professor  in  the  Theological  Department  of  Yale  Col- 
lege, and  designs  his  work  especially  to  be  a  text-book  for 
classes.  The  portion  on  Pastoral  Duties  is  well  arranged, 
and  probably  the  best  treatise  in  existence  on  that  subject. 

The  following  w^orks  ought  also  to  be  mentioned,  because 
they  are  at  present  frequently  met  with  in  this  country. 
Russell's  Pulpit  Elocution  is  perhaps  the  best  treatise  on 
its  subject,  but  that  is  not  saying  very  much.  Sturtevant's 
Preacher's  Manual  is  a  large  volume,  of  but  little  value. 
Bautain  on  Extemporaneous  Speaking  has  some  good  sug- 
gestions. Mullois'  The  Clergy  and  the  Pulpit  is  enter- 
taining, but  not  particularly  instructive.  Zincke's  Duty 
and  Discipline  of  Extemporary  Speaking  is  useful  to  per- 
sons who  have  the  established  habit  of  reading  sermons, 
and  wish  now  to  adopt  extemporizing. 

Of  works  on  the  History  of  Preaching,  there  may  be 
named :  Moule's  Christian  Oratory  during  the  First  Five 
Centuries,  Cambridge  and  London,  1859,  an  excellent  little 
volume  ;  Neale's  Mediceval  Preachers  and  Preaching,  Lon- 
don, 1856,  which  is  less  valuable ;  and  Fish's  Masterpieces 


INTRODUCTION.  37 

of  Pulpit  Eloquence,  2  vols.  8vo,  New  York,  1856,  (new 
edition  in  one  volume,  1869,)  which  contains  excellent 
specimens  of  sermons  from  all  ages,  with  brief  biographical 
sketches  of  the  several  preachers,  and  good  essays  on  the 
Pulpit  of  different  periods  and  countries,  and  is  a  very- 
useful  work.  More  complete  treatises  on  the  History  of 
Preaching  are  found  in  German,  as  those  of  Paniel,  Lentz 
and  Nesselmann.* 

Besides  treatises  on  Preaching,  the  chief  sources  of  in- 
struction in  Homiletics  are  as  follows  :  (1.)  The  Preach- 
ing that  we  hear,  when  heard  with  fraternal  sympathy  and 
prayerful  desire  for  spiritual  benefit,  and  yet  with  critical 
attention.  (2.)  Published  Sermons,  the  value  of  which  is 
readily  acknowledged.  (3.)  Biographies  of  Preachers, 
which  to  one  having  a  general  knowledge  of  Homiletics, 
are  often  surpassingly  instructive.  (4.)  The  criticism  of 
instructors  or  judicious  hearers  upon  our  own  preaching. 
(5.)  Careful  observation  of  our  faults,  as  developed  in 
actual  practice,  with  resolute  and  patient  effort  to  correct 
them. 

*  A  much  more  copious  list  of  works  on  Homiletics  may  be  found 
in  Kidder's  Homiletics,  Appendix.  The  present  list  was  designed, 
as  intimated  at  the  outset,  to  include  only  those  which  for  some 
reason  are  thought  specially  worthy  of  notice,  with  brief  statements 
as  to  their  value,  founded  on  personal  examination.  It  is  believed 
to  omit  very  few  works  which  now  possess  other  than  a  mere  curi- 
ous interest.  Various  treatises  and  essays  on  particular  branches 
of  Homiletics  are  mentioned  below  under  the  appropriate  heads. 
4 


Fakt  I. 
ATERIALS   OF   PREACHING. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   TEXT  —  SELECTION. 

§  1.  Meaning  of  Term.     ?  2.  Advantages  of  Having  a  Text. 
g  3.  Rules  fob.  the  Selection  of  a  Text. 

§  1.  The  word  text  is  from  the  Latin  textus  or  textum, 
something  woven,  thus  denoting  the  web  of  discourse.* 
It  came  to  be  used,  as  it  still  is,  for  the  connected  discourse 
upon  which  commentary  is  written,  successive  portions  of 
this  connected  whole  being  separately  taken  and  remarked 
upon.  Thus  we  speak  of  the  text  of  Scripture,  the  Greek 
text,  the  sacred  text,  as  opposed  to  comments,  translations, 
and  other  modes  of  using  it.  So  as  to  oral  exposition,  com- 
ment, etc.  And  in  any  such  case,  the  text  which  one  treats, 
in  a  written  or  an  oral  exposition  or  discussion,  might  be 
not  necessarily  the  whole  text  of  Scripture,  but  the  text  of 
a  particular  book,  paragraph,  or  sentence.  There  is  always 
the  same  contrast,  between  the  text  treated  and  our  treat- 
ment of  it.t  The  history  of  the  word,  like  that  of  homi- 
letics,  points  back  to  the  fact,  which  is  also  well  known 
otherwise,  that  preaching  was  originally  expository. 

The  early  Christian  preachers  commonly  spoke  upon 
passages  of  considerable  length,  and  occupied  themselves 

*  Comp.  texture,  context,  etc. 

f  Hagenbach  has   explained   the   word  correctly   (Horn.   s.   96). 

Shedd  (Horn.  p.  159)  has  clearly  mistaken  it. 

38 


THE    TEXT  —  SELECTION.  39 

largely  with  exposition.  Frequently,  however,  as  was  natu- 
ral, they  would  find  a  brief  passage  so  fruitful  as  to  confine 
themselves  to  it.  Usage  tended  more  and  more  toward  the 
preference  of  short  texts.  In  England  in  the  17th  century, 
it  was  not  uncommon  to  make  many  sermons  on  some  brief 
passage.  Thus  John  Howe  has  fourteen  sermons  on  a  part 
of  Rom.  8  :  24,  "We  are  saved  by  hope;"  seventeen  on 
1  John  4  :  20;  and  eighteen  on  John  3  :  6.  The  object  was 
to  make  a  complete  discussion  of  some  great  topic,  and  to 
bind  all  the  discourses  into  a  wdiole  by  connecting  all  with 
the  same  text.  But  this  practice  conflicted  with  the  natu- 
ral love  of  variety.  It  is  usually  much  better  to  make  a 
series  appear  such  by  the  manifest  relation  of  the  subjects, 
and  to  choose  for  each  discourse  a  separate  text,  which 
presents  the  particular  subject  or  view  there  discussed. 
This  is  at  present  the  common  practice,  it  being  a  some- 
what rare  thing  now  to  preach  more  than  one  sermon  on 
the  same  brief  text.  There  is  also  a  tendency  at  present 
to  return  to  the  more  frequent  use  of  long  texts.* 

§  2.      ADVANTAGES   OF   HAVING  A   TEXT. 

It  is  manifest  that  to  take  a  text  gives  a  certain  air  of 
sacredness  to  the  discourse.  But  more  than  this  is  true. 
The  primary  idea  is  that  the  discourse  is  a  development  of 
the  text,  an  explanation,  illustration,  application  of  its 
teachings.  Our  business  is  to  teach  God's  word.  And 
although  we  may  often  discuss  subjects,  and  aspects  of  sub- 
jects, which  are  not  presented  in  precisely  that  form  by  any 
passage  of  Scripture,  yet  the  fundamental  conception  should 
he  habitually  retained,  that  we  are  about  to  set  forth  what 
the  text  contains.  When  circumstances  determine  the  sub- 
ject to  be  treated,  and  we  have  to  look  for  a  text,  one  can 
almost  always  be  found  which  will  have  some  real,  though 

*  Compare  below,  Part  II,  chapter  3,  g  3,  on  Expository  Sermons 


40  THE    TEXT  —  SELECTION. 

it  be  a  general  relation  to  the  subject.  If  there  be  rare 
cases  in  which  it  is  otherwise,  it  will  then  be  better  to  have 
no  text  than  one  with  which  the  subject  has  only  a  fanciful 
or  forced  connection.  There  are  several  advantages  in  regu- 
larly taking  a  text.  (1.)  It  constantly  recalls  the  fact  just 
mentioned,  that  our  undertaking  is  not  to  guide  the  people 
by  our  own  wisdom,  but  to  impart  to  them  the  teachings 
of  God  in  his  Word.  This  fact  enables  us  to  speak  with 
confidence,  and  leads  the  people  to  recognize  the  authority 
of  what  we  say.  (2.)  If  the  text  is  well  choseii,  it  awakens 
interest  at  the  outset.  (3.)  It  often  aids  the  hearer  in 
remembering  the  train  of  thought,  having  this  effect  wher- 
ever the  sermon  is  really  evolved  from  the  text.  (4.)  It 
affords  opportunity  of  explaining  and  impressing  some 
passage  of  Scripture.  (5.)  It  tends  to  prevent  our  wander- 
ing utterly  away  from  Scriptural  topics  and  views.  (6.) 
Greater  variety  will  be  gained  than  if  the  mind  were  left 
altogether  to  the  suggestion  of  circumstances,  for  then  it 
will  often  fall  back  into  its  old  ruts;  and  this  variety  is 
attained  just  in  proportion  as  one  restricts  himself  to  the 
specific  thought  of  each  particular  text. 

Objections  to  the  use  of  texts  have  commonly  arisen  from 
one  of  two  or  three  causes.  The  grievous  laxity  in  the 
interpretation  of  texts  which  has  so  widely  prevailed,  leads 
some  men  to  regard  the  employment  of  them  as  wrong  or 
useless.  This  is  the  old  story  —  the  abuse  of  a  thing  caus- 
ing men  to  question  the  propriety  of  its  use.  Again, 
persons  who  have  little  or  no  true  reverence  for  Scripture, 
or  appreciation  of  its  riches,  speak  of  the  text  as  a  restric- 
tion upon  freedom  of  thought  and  flow  of  eloquence. 
Thus  Voltaire :  "  It  were  to  be  wished  that  Bourdaloue  in 
banishing  from  the  pulpit  the  bad  taste  which  disgraced  it, 
had  also  banished  the  custom  of  preaching  on  a  text. 
Indeed,  to  speak  long  on  a  quotation  of  a  line  or  two,  to 
exhaust  one's  selfin  subjecting  a  whole  discourse  to  the  con- 


THE    TEXT SELECTION.  41 

trol  of  this  line,  seems  a  trifling  labor,  little  worthy  of  the 
dignity  of  the  ministry.  The  text  becomes  a  sort  of  motto, 
or  rather  enigma,  which  the  discourse  develops."  "^  It 
seems  plain  that  this  sneer  arose  partly  from  the  torturing 
interpretation  so  often  witnessed,  and  chiefly  from  the 
critic's  want  of  reverence  for  the  Bible,  and  ignorance  of 
the  preacher's  true  relation  to  the  Bible.  And  perhaps, 
as  a  third  ground  of  objection  to  texts,  some  able  and 
devout  preachers,  disliking  expository  and  even  textual 
preaching,  and  wishing  that  every  sermon  should  be  a 
philosophical  discussion  or  an  elaborate  discourse  upon  a 
definite  topic,  incline  to  regard  the  custom  of  always  taking 
a  text  as  an  inconvenient  restriction.  Such  appears  to 
have  been  the  feeling  of  Vinet. 

It  is  sometimes  not  unsuitable  to  have  two  texts,  or  even 
more.  Thus  with  Heb.  9  :  22,  "  And  without  shedding  of 
blood  is  no  remission,"  there  might  be  united  1  John  1 : 7, 
"The  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  his  Son  cleanseth  us  from  all 
sin."  Or  with  Isa.  6:3,  "  The  whole  earth  is  full  of  his 
glory,"  may  be  taken  Psa.  72  :  19,  "And  let  the  whole 
earth  be  filled  with  his  glory ;  "  to  angelic  eyes  it  is  so  — 
the  human  mind  can  only  pray  that  it  may  be  so.  (Comp. 
Hab.  2  :  14.)  Spurgeon  has  a  sermon  on  the  words,  "I 
have  sinned,"  as  occurring  seven  times  in  the  Bible,  and 
gives  interesting  views  of  the  different  circumstances  and 
states  of  mind  in  which  they  were  uttered.f 

§  3.  RULES  FOR  THE  SELECTION  OF  TEXTS. 
The  proper  selection  of  a  text  is  a  matter  of  great  im- 
portance. A  felicitous  choice  will  animate  the  preacher 
throughout  the  preparation  and  the  delivery  of  his  ser- 
mon, and  will  help  him  to  gain  at  once  the  attention  of  his 
hearers.    There  are  few  points  as  to  which  preachers  difler 

*  Voltaire,  Age  of  Louis  XIY.     Quoted  by  Vinet,  Horn.  p.  99 
f  Amer.  ed.  of  Spurgeon's  Sermons,  Third  Series,  p.  241 
4* 


42  THE    TEXT— SELECTION. 

more  widely  in  talent  and  skill,  than  the  selection  of  texts, 
and  few  in  which  diligent  and  systematic  effort  will  be  more 
richly  rewarded.  The  minister,  or  student  for  the  ministry, 
should  keep  a  blank  book  for  lists  of  texts.  In  reading 
the  Scriptures  and  books  of  Theology,  in  reading  collec- 
tions of  sermons,  biographies,  and  newspaper  notices,  in 
casual  reflection  and  in  the  preparation  of  other  sermons, 
passages  will  be  constantly  occurring  upon  which  it  strikes 
one  that  he  could  make  a  sermon.  Let  these  be  at  once 
written  down  in  the  list.  Let  the  preacher  constrain  him- 
self to  do  so,  until  it  becomes  a  habit.  And  he  should  by 
all  means  put  down  at  the  same  time,  however  briefly,  the 
proposed  outline  of  the  discourse,  or  any  specially  valu- 
able view  or  illustration  of  it,  which  he  is  not  sure  will 
return  to  his  mind  whenever  the  text  is  looked  at.  Other- 
wise he  will  afterward  find  many  passages  in  the  list  that  it 
will  seem  strange  he  should  ever  have  noted,  because  the 
association  will  have  been  broken,  the  point  of  view^  will 
have  disappeared.  At  some  times  the  mind  is  in  a  highly 
creative  mood,  and  plans  of  sermons  or  suggestive  texts  or 
topics  will  rapidly  succeed  one  another,  as  the  preacher 
reads,  reflects,  or  visits  from  house  to  house.  These  fruit- 
ful germs  should  be  carefully  husbanded,  and  the  lines  of 
development  indicated.  And  often  when  one  is  cold  and 
lifeless,  and  could  at  the  moment  produce  nothing,  some 
good  thought  which  was  struck  out  in  a  happier  mood  will 
fall  into  his  mind  like  a  spa.rk,  and  presently  set  it  all  on 
fire.  Many  an  admirable  text,  and  many  a  golden  thought, 
given  to  men  in  their  better  moments,  are  lost  forever,  when 
a  brief  record,  or  even  some  little  effort  to  associate  them 
in  mind  with  other  things,  might  have  made  them  a  per- 
manent possession.* 

*  For  numerous  striking  specimens,  not  of  texts  but  of  thoughts 
thus  recorded,  see  Life  of  John  Foster,  Vol.  I.,  p.  108-156.  Compare 
Alexander,  Tlioughts  on  Preaching,  p.  513. 


THE    TEXT SELECTION.  43 

To  aid  in  the  selection  of  Texts,  there  are  offered  the 
following  rules. 

1.  The  text  should  not  be  obscure.  It  ought,  as  a  rule, 
to  exhibit  its  meaning  readily.  Otherwise,  the  people  will 
either  be  repelled  by  what  they  see  no  sense  in,  or  will  be 
apt  to  feel  a  merely  idle  curiosity  to  know  what  in  the 
world  the  preacher  will  make  of  that.  Still,  there  are 
important  exceptions  here.  If  the  preacher  is  satisfied 
he  can  explain  an  obscure  passage,  and  can  show  that  it 
teaches  valuable  truth,  he  may  take  it.  If  the  passage  is 
one  about  which  many  are  known  to  feel  interested,  and 
he  is  really  able  to  make  its  meaning  clear,  and  bring  out 
useful  lessons,  it  may  be  very  wise  to  employ  it.  But 
observe  the  stress  that  is  laid  on  the  practicability  of 
making  the  passage  instructive  and  useful.  To  explain 
merely  for  the  sake  of  explaining,  is  a  task  for  which  the 
preacher  scarcely  has  time.  It  is  his  business  to  teach  the 
people  lessons  of  real  utility,  either  as  regards  doctrine  or 
practice.* 

2.  One  must  be  careful  as  to  employing  texts  "  marked 
by  grandeur  of  expression.  They  seem  to  promise  a  great 
effort."  t  -^d  if  great  expectations  are  excited  at  the 
outset,  it  is  of  course  very  difficult  to  meet  them.  Yet  no 
one  would  say  as  a  rule  that  such  texts  must  be  avoided. 
Many  of  the  noblest  and  most  impressive  passages  of 
Scripture  rise  into  a  natural  grandeur  of  expression,  and 
there  would  be  serious  loss  in  habitually  avoiding  these. 
Sometimes  we  may  find  a  simpler  text  that  presents  the 
same  subject,  and  the  grander  passage  can  be  introduced 
somewhere  in  the  course  of  the  sermon.  But  when  such  a 
passage  is  made  the  text,  we  may  prevent  any  undesirable 
effect  by  announcing  it  with  unaffected  modesty,  and  by 

*  See  further  in  what  is  said  on  Expository  Preaching,  Part  II, 
chapter  3. 
t  Eiplev. 


44  VHE    TEXT  —  SELECTION. 

the  general  tone  of  the  introduction ;  perhaps  even  saying 
—  not  as  an  apology  but  a  quiet  remark  —  something  to 
the  effect  that  of  course  none  of  us  can  rise  to  the  height  of 
this  great  passage,  and  yet  it  may  do  us  good  to  meditate 
upon  its  teachings.  We  must  carefully  avoid  whatever 
course  would  savor  of  display,  but  must  not  fastidiously 
shrink  from  treating  any  passage  which  we  may  hope  to 
make  useful. 

3.  It  is  scarcely  ever  proper  to  choose  a  text  that  will 
seem  odd.  When  humor  is  employed  in  preaching  it 
ought  to  be  an  incidental  thing,,  and  manifestly  unstudied. 
It  is  so  natural  for  some  men  to  indulge  in  quaint,  and 
even  in  very  odd  sayings,  they  so  promptly  and  easily  fall 
back  into  their  prevailing  seriousness,  that  the  humorous 
remarks  are  unobjectionable,  and  sometimes,  through  the 
well-known  relation  between  humor  and  pathos,  they 
heighten  the  effect.  But  an  effort  to  be  amusing,  anything 
odd  that  appears  to  have  been  calculated,  is  felt  to  be 
incompatible  with  a  genuine  seriousness  and  solemnity. 
Now  the  text  has  of  course  been  deliberately  chosen,  and 
an  odd  text  must  therefore  have  a  bad  effect.  Yet  there 
are  sayings  of  Scripture  that  seem  quaint,  which  an  earnest 
man  may  employ  to  good  purpose.  For  example,  William 
Jay  has  a  good  sermon  upon  Hos.  7 :  8,  "  Ephraim  is  a 
cake  not  turned." 

Some  instances  of  ludicrous  texts  and  subjects  may  be  given,  as 
a  matter  of  curious  interest.  It  is  told  in  Virginia  that  a  preacher 
of  a  belligerent  and  unpopular  denomination  went  to  a  village  where 
there  vrere  but  two  churches.  The  Presbyterian  minister,  Mr. 
Sparrow,  and  the  Baptist,  Mr.  Fox,  both  refused  him  the  use  of 
their  houses  of  worship.  So  he  preached  in  a  school-room,  and 
took  as  his  text,  *'  The  foxes  have  holes,  and  the  birds  of  the  air 
have  nests,  but  the  Son  of  man  hath  not  where  to  lay  his  head."  A 
good  hit,  no  doubt,  but  rendering  it  nearly  impossible  that  the  ser- 
mon should  make  any  true  religious  impression.  An  ignorant  Meth- 
odist preacher  in  the  same  State  chose  as  his  text,  "Enoch  walked 


THE    TEXT SELECTION.  45 

with  God,  and  he  was  not,"  and  occupied  himself  with  vari  us  things 
that  Enoch  was  not  —  he  was  not  a  drunkard,  he  was  not  a  liar,  he 
was  not  a  profane  swearer,  etc.     The  words  "Let  him  that  is  on 
the  house  top  not  come  down,"  quoted  in  the  form,  "Top-not,  come 
down,"  and  used  for  a  sermon  against  a  certain  style  of  head-dress 
called  a  "  top-knot,"  would  seem  to  be  the  very  climax  of  absurdity  ; 
and  yet  many  a  passage  has  been  mutilated  and  applied  in  a  way 
fully  as  unwarrantable,  though  less  ridiculous.     Some  one  has  fairly 
satirized  a  certain  style  of  historical  sermons  by  proposing  such 
subjects  as  the  following:  Adam  the  grandfather  of  as  all,  and  the 
duties  of   grandparents.     Noah  the  first  Sea-captain.     Nebuchad- 
nezzar the   first  pure  Vegetarian.      Felix  the  free-lover,  etc.  etc. 
William  Jay,  who  was  sometimes  inclined  to  carry  this  sort  of  thing 
quite  too  far,  once  announced  his  intention  to  preach  on  the  words, 
"Take  it  by  the  tail,"  said  to  Moses  with  reference  to  the  serpent 
(Exod.  4:  4).     Not  even  his  ingenuity  and  devotedness  could  have 
saved  this  from  being  intolerable.     Coquerel*  tells  of  a  Reformed 
pastor  at  Amsterdam  a  century  ago,  who  was  famous  for  boldness 
and  humor,  and  being  once  at  the  Hague,  was  greatly  importuned 
by  the  wits  about  the  court  of  the  Stadtholder  to  preach  the  next 
Sunday.      He  finally  consented  on  condition  that  they  should  all 
attend,  and  take  no  offence ;    and  giving  as  his  text  the   account 
of  Philip  and  the  officer  of  Queen  Candace,  he  announced  the  fol- 
lowing plan  of  discourse:  "I  find  in  this  narrative  four  subjects 
of  astonishment  which  go  on  increasing  the  one  upon  the  other. 
1.  A  courtier  who  reads  the  Scriptures,  which  is  already  surpris- 
ing.    2.  A  courtier  who  acknowledges  his  ignorance,  which  is  more 
surprising  still.      3.  A  courtier  who  asks  his  inferior  to  instruct 
him,  which  must  cause  a  redoubled   surprise.      4.  And  that  this 
surprise  may  reach  its  climax,  a  courtier  who  is  converted."     Ad- 
mirable wit,  but  hardly  suitable  as  a  sermon.     Shedd  f  telis  of  a 
preacher  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II,  who  selected  "Seek  first  the 
kingdom  of  God,"  and  urged  that  as  it  is  not  the  parliament  of  God, 
but  the  kingdom,  therefore  kingly  government  is  most  in  accordance 
with  the  divine  will.     Also  of  a  sermon  to  a  newly  married  couple 
on  Psa.  72 :  7,  "  And  abundance  of  peace  so  long  as  the  moon  endur- 
eth."     It  is  said  that  the  celebrated  Wetstein,  when  under  trial  at 
Basel,  had  among  his  opponents  a  copper-smith,  and  that  he  preached 
on  2  Tim.  4  :  4,   "Alexander,  the  copper-smith,  did  me  nuch  evil 

»  Obs.  sur  la  Prgd.  p.  96.  t  Horn.  p.  170. 


46  THE    TEXT  —  SELECTION. 

the  Lord  reward  him  according  to  his  works."  *  Such  stories  are 
more  numerous  than  useful,  and  there  is  only  added  the  mention 
of  a  fashion  of  alphabetical  preaching,  which  has  been  sometimes 
practised.  Thus  the  word  "grace"  is  made  the  text,  and  the  let- 
ters of  the  word  give  the  divisions  —  great  grace,  rich  grace, 
almighty,  covenant,  eternal  grace.  A  venerable  minister  states  that 
he  once  heard  an  ignorant  Baptist  preacher  treat  in  this  fashion 
the  word  "salvation"  —  s  is  safe  salvation;  a,  almighty  salvation; 
and  80  with  long,  vast,  almighty  (as  before),  and  at  length  t,  'tarnal 
salvation;  i,  infinite  salvation;  "and  the  last  two  letters,  to  be 
brief,  we  will  take  together  —  on^  'onorable  salvation." 

In  respect  to  all  such  cases,  we  must  judge  others  leniently,  and 
ourselves  strictly.  The  allowableness  of  oddity  depends  greatly 
upon  dififerences  of  taste  and  circumstances.  But  the  man  who  is 
tempted,  in  our  time  and  country,  to  deal  in  deliberate  oddities  in 
order  to  strike,  "would  do  well  to  recall  Cowper's  words, 

"'T  is  pitiful 
To  court  a  grin  when  you  should  woo  a  soul." 

One  sees  the  attention  that  is  excited,  and  is  apt  to  hear  of  any 
good  done,  by  sermons  disfigured  by  oddity  or  other  improprieties ; 
but  he  seldom  hears  of  the  persons,  perhaps  many  persons,  who 
were  repelled,  shocked,  driven  away  from  him,  and  in  some  cases 
driven  away  from  the  gospel. 

4.  Do  not  avoid  a  text  because  it  is  familiar.  What 
has  made  some  texts  familiar  to  all,  but  the  fact  that  they 
are  so  manifestly  good  texts  ?  It  is  a  very  mistaken  desire 
for  novelty  which  leads  a  man  to  shrink  from  such  rich  and 
fruitful  passages  as  "  God  so  loved  the  world,"  etc. ;  "  This 
is  a  faithful  saying,"  etc.,  which  Luther  used  to  call  "little 
Bibles,"  as  if  including  in  their  narrow  compass  the  whole 
Bible.f  He  who  will  turn  away  from  the  tradition  of  the 
pulpit  as  to  the  meaning  and  application  of  such  passages, 
and  make  personal  and  earnest  study  of  them,  will  often 
find  much  that  is  new  to  him  and  his  hearers,  as  the  skilful 

*  Hagenbach,  Horn.  s.  105, 

•j-  See  Hood,  Lamps,  Pitchers,  &c.,  p.  591. 


THE    TEXT SELECTION.  47 

gold-hunter  in  California  will  sometimes  follow  in  the  very 
track  of  many  searchers,  and  gain  there  his  richest  harvest. 
Besides,  what  we  need  is  not  absolute  novelty,  but  simply 
freshness.  If  we  can  manage,  by  prayerful  reflection,  to 
obtain  such  views  and  provide  such  illustrations  of  a  famil- 
iar text  as  will  give  it  a  fresh  interest  to  ourselves  and  the 
hearers,  then  all  the  riches  of  the  passage  are  made  avail- 
able for  good.  Alexander  *  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that 
of  the  great  sculptors  and  painters  many  took  the  same 
themes ;  and  so  with  the  Greek  tragedians.  He  remarks : 
"Some,  anxious  to  avoid  hackneyed  topics,  omit  the  great- 
est ;  just  as  if  we  should  describe  Switzerland  and  omit  the 
Alps."  In  point  of  fact,  the  great  preachers,  all  the  best 
preachers,  do  preach  much  upon  the  great  texts  and  the 
great  subjects.  How  is  a  feebler  man  ever  to  develop  his 
own  strength,  unless  he  grapples  with  great  themes?  One 
may  show  skill,  and  add  somewhat  to  the  harvest,  by  culti- 
vating out-of-the-way  corners  and  unpromising  ledges  of 
rock ;  but  the  bulk  of  the  crop,  by  which  the  family  are 
fed,  must  come  from  the  broad,  open  field. 

5.  Do  not  habitually  neglect  any  portion  of  Scripture. 
Some  neglect  the  Old  Testament,  thus  losing  all  its  rich 
unfolding  of  Grod's  character  and  the  methods  of  his 
Providence,  all  its  unnumbered  illustrations  of  human  life 
and  duty,  and  its  many  types  and  predictions  of  the 
coming  Saviour.  Others  preach  on  the  Old  Testament 
almost  exclusively.  These  are  either  men  who  take  no 
delight  in  the  "  doctrines  of  grace,"  in  the  spirituality  of 
the  Gospel ;  or  men  devoted  to  fanciful  allegorizing,  who 
do  not  enjoy  the  straightforward  teaching  of  Christ  and 
his  apostles,  so  much  as  their  own  wild  "  spiritualizing " 
of  everything  in  the  Old  Testament  history,  prophecies 
ai  d  proverbs.! 

*  Thoughts  on  Preaching,  p.  10-12. 
f  Comp.  Hagenbach,  s.  102. 


48  THE    TEXT SELECTION. 

Let  us  not  neglect  either  of  these  great  divisions  of  God's 
own  Word.  And  so  as  to  particular  books.  In  the  course 
of  a  good  many  years  a  preacher  ought  to  have  taken 
Bome  texts  from  every  portion  of  Scripture,  though  he 
will  of  course  choose  most  frequently  from  those  books  to 
which  attention  is  directed  by  his  peculiar  mental  consti- 
tution and  tastes,  or  by  their  comparative  richness  in 
evangelical  and  practical  matter. 

6.  Do  not  take  spurious  passages.  A  favorite  text  with 
many  is  Acts  9:6,"  Lord,  what  wilt  thou  have  me  to  do  ?'* 
This  is  unquestionably  spurious,  and  these  words  should 
never  be  quoted  as  Scripture ;  yet  essentially  the  same 
thought  is  expressed  in  Acts  22 :  10,  "  What  shall  I  do. 
Lord  ?  "  as  uttered  on  the  occasion  of  Paul's  conversion. 
The  famous  passage  in  1  John  5:7,"  There  are  three  that 
bear  record  in  heaven,  the  Father,  the  Word,  and  the 
Holy  Ghost:  and  these  three  are  one,"  is  also  spurious 
beyond  question.  The  passage  in  Acts  8  :  37,  "  And  Philip 
said :  If  thou  believest  with  all  thy  heart,  thou  mayest. 
And  he  answered  and  said,  I  believe  that  Jesus  Christ  is 
the  Son  of  God,"  has  the  evidence  so  overwhelmingly 
against  its  genuineness  that  it  ought  not  to  be  used  as  a 
text.* 

7.  The  sayings  of  uninspired  men,  recorded  in  Scripture, 
ought  not  to  be  used  as  texts  unless  we  know  from  other 
teachings  of  Scripture  that   they  are  true,  or  unless  we 

*  There  is  no  more  occasion  for  uneasiness  at  the  fact  that  errors 
are  found  in  the  common  text  of  Scripture,  than  in  the  current  trans- 
lations. Men  who  are  well  aware  of  the  latter  fact,  and  not  dis- 
turbed by  it,  are  sometimes  shocked  at  the  former,  because  it  is 
new  to  them.  But  neither  in  text  nor  in  translation  do  our  common 
Bibles  present  any  such  errors  or  uncertainties  as  would  alter  or 
modify  any  doctrine  of  Scripture.  Still,  that  we  ought  not  to 
employ  as  Scripture  what  is  known  to  be  spurious,  is  a  proposition 
which  would  seem  to  need  no  proof. 


THE    TEXT  —  SELECl.ON.  49 

propose  to  find  instruction  in  the  fact  that  those  men  made 
the  statements  given.  Many  such  sayings  found  in  the 
Bible  are  in  themselves  utterly  untrue,  inspiration  being 
responsible  only  for  the  fact  that  they  were  actually  spoken. 
No  one  would  think  of  treating  as  true  the  vaunting  speech 
of  Rabshakeh  (2  Kings,  chap.  18 j.  The  question  of  the 
scribes  (Mark  2:7),  "  Who  can  forgive  sins  but  God 
only?"  we  know  to  be  a  just  question,  and  as  such  we 
might  make  it  a  text.  In  John  7  :  46,  "  Never  man  spake 
like  this  man,"  we  likewise  recognize  a  truth,  and  at  the 
same  time  find  significance  in  the  fact  that  the  officers  sent 
to  apprehend  him  were  thus-  impressed.  The  well-known 
words  of  Gamaliel  (Acts  5  :  38-9)  are  very  instructive  as 
his  saying  under  the  circumstances,  but  the  principle  laid 
down  is  not  true  without  qualification.  In  the  book  of 
Job,  many  of  the  things  said  by  those  friends  are  quite 
erroneous,  and  a  few  of  Job's  own  utterances  are  tinged 
with  error,  as  is  sho^vTi  in  the  latter  part  of  the  book. 
These  ought  not  to  be  treated  as  unqualified  truth,  while 
as  apart  of  the  discussion  they  are  highly  interesting  and 
instructive.  So  with  some  particular  sayings  in  Ecclesi- 
astes,  which  are  not  the  present  affirmations  of  the  inspired 
writer,  but  only  a  record  of  things  which  he  had  said  in 
some  former  wrong  mood,  and  w^hich  the  argument  of  the 
whole  book  serves  to  correct.  Yet  texts  from  both  these 
books  are  sometimes  preached  upon,  which,  regarded  in 
themselves,  present  erroneous  and  morbid  views  of  life. 
Let  all  sayings  of  uninspired  men  be  scrutinized,  in  the  light 
of  their  connection  and  of  Scripture  in  general,  before 
they  are  used  as  texts.* 

8.  In  the  course  of  pastoral  labor,  several  considerations 
should  be  borne  in  mind  when  selecting  texts.  One  is,  the 
present   condition   of  the   congregation.      A   second,   the 

*  See  some  examples  in  Vinet,  Horn.  p.  109. 


50  THE     TEXT  —  SELECTION. 

character  of  the  texts  recently  discussed.  We  h.ive  to 
guard  against  monotony,  in  the  subjects  chosen,  as  well  as 
in  the  mode  of  treating  them,  and  to  seek  after  such  a 
relation  between  the  successive  sermons  as  will  cause  them 
to  help  each  other's  effect.  It  is  sometimes  well  to  look 
forward  and  mark  out  a  series  of  sermons  in  advance ;  but 
it  is  always  well  to  glance  backward,  at  each  new  step, 
and  keep  in  suitable  relation  to  what  has  preceded.  For 
this  purpose,  as  well  as  on  other  accounts,  a  preacher 
should  from  the  outset  keep  a  list  of  sermons  preached, 
including  date,  place,  and  text.  A  third  and  very  import- 
ant consideration  is,  to  select  that  in  which  we  can  at  the 
time  take  interest,  as  otherwise  we  shall  not  deeply  interest 
others.  These  three  considerations  will  sometimes  more  or 
less  conflict ;  we  must  endeavor  to  maintain  the  balance 
among  them  as  judiciously  as  possible. 


THE    TEXT  —  INTEKPRETA.TION.  ol 

CHAPTER   II. 
THE   TEXT  —  INTERPRET ATION. 

g  1.  Obligation  to  Interpret  Carefully  and  Strictly.  ^  2.  Chie*' 
Sources  of  Error  in  the  Interpretation  of  a  Text.  ^  3.  Ex- 
amples OF  Texts  which  are  often  Misapplied,  g  4.  Brief 
Rules  for  Interpreting. 

§  1.  To  interpret  and  apply  his  text  in  accordance  with 
Its  real  meaning,  is  one  of  the  preacher's  most  sacred 
duties.  *  He  stands  before  the  people  for  the  very  purpose 
of  teaching  and  exhorting  them  out  of  the  Word  of  God. 
He  announces  a  particular  passage  of  God's  Word  as  his 
text  with  the  distinctly  implied  understanding  that  from 
this  his  sermon  will  be  drawn  —  if  not  always  its  various 
thoughts,  yet  certainly  its  general  subject.  If  he  is  not 
willing  to  be  bound  by  this  understanding,  he  ought  to 
reject  the  practice  which  commits  him  to  it,  and  preach 
without  any  text.  But  using  a  text,  and  undertaking  to 
develop  and  apply  its  teachings,  we  are  solemnly  bound  to 
represent  the  text  as  meaning  precisely  what  it  does  mean. 

This  would  seem  to  be  a  truism.  But  it  is  often  and 
grievously  violated.  Not  only  is  there  much  contented 
ignorance  as  to  interpretation,  and  much  careless  neglect 
on  the  part  of  persons  well  able  to  interpret  correctly,  and 
much  wild  spiritualizing  of  plain  words,  but,  upon  the 
wretched  principle  of  "accommodation,"  Scripture  sen- 
tences or  phrases  are  employed  as  signifying  what  it  is 
well  known,  and  perhaps  even  declared  at  the  time,  that 
the  sacred  writer  did  not  mean  to  say,  and  has  not  at  all 
said.  "  The  original  meaning  of  these  words,  as  used  by 
the  inspired  writer,  is  —  so  and  so ;  but  I  propose  on  the 
present  occasion  to  employ  them  in  the  following  sense." 


52  THE    TEXT  —  I:N  TERPRETATION. 

That  is  to  say  —  honored  brother,  see  what  you  are  doing 
—  you  stand  up  to  teach  men  from  a  passage  of  God's 
blessed  word,  and  coolly  declare  that  you  propose  to  make 
the  passage  mean  what  it  does  not  mean.  "  But  the  words 
might  have  that  sense."  They  might,  but  as  a  part  of  the 
Bible,  as  a  text  of  Scripture,  they  do  not.  If  we  take  the 
passage  in  a  sense  entirely  foreign  to  w^hat  the  sacred 
writer  designed,  as  indicated  by  his  connection,  then,  as 
we  use  it,  the  phrase  is  no  longer  a  passage  of  Scripture  at 
all.  It  is  merely  words  of  Scripture,  used  without  authority 
to  convey  a  different  meaning  ;  just  as  truly  as  if  we  had 
picked  out  words  from  a  concordance,  and  framed  them 
into  a  sentence.  "But  I  use  the  passage  merely  as  a 
motto."  Well,  if  a  preacher  has  the  right  to  take  no  text 
but  only  a  motto  —  which  is  questionable  —  he  certainly 
has  not  the  right  to  make  a  Scriptural  motto  signify  what 
he  knows  it  does  not  signify.  "  But  the  language  of  Scrip- 
ture is  so  rich,  its  pregnant  sayings  often  mean  so  much, 
that  I  think  perhaps  this  expression  may  convey,  among 
other  things,  the  sense  w^hich  I  propose."  If  it  really 
does,  there  is  no  objection  whatever  to  using  it  so.  But  a 
mere  vague  "  perhaps  "  is  a  slender  and  tottering  excuse 
for  a  preacher,  who  is  looked  up  to  by  the  people  as 
authority  in  this  matter,  who  is  supposed  to  have  studied 
his  text  and  to  know  its  meaning,  and  whose  statements 
will,  for  that  reason,  be  accepted  by  many  without  ques- 
tion. Such  a  man  is  verily  guilty  before  God  if  he  does 
not  honestly  strive  to  understand  that  which  he  interprets, 
and  give  forth  its  real  meaning  and  no  other. 

Now  supposing  in  the  preacher  an  earnest  desire  to 
interpret  his  text  correctly,  he  will  not  ahvays  find  it  an 
easy  task.  Apart  from  the  loose  notions,  bad  examples, 
and  previous  wrong  practice,  which  often  becloud  the 
mind  with  reference  to  interpretation,  it  has  some  intrinsic 
and  serious  difficulties  which  can  be  overcome  only  by 


THE    TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION.  53 

thoughtful  effort.  While,  therefore,  the  whole  great  subject 
of  Biblical  Hermeneutics  or  Interpretation  does  not  belong 
to  a  treatise  on  Homiletics,  it  seems  proper  and  necessary 
to  give  some  account  of  the  errors  to  be  avoided,  and  the 
methods  to  be  adopted,  by  a  preacher  in  interpreting  his 
text. 

§  2.   CHIEF  SOURCES  OF  ERROR  IN  THE  INTERPRE- 
TATION OF  A  TEXT. 

1.  Erroneous  interpretations  often  arise  from  misunder- 
standing the  phraseology  of  the  text  itself.  Language  can 
never  do  more  than  approximate  to  perfect  precision  of 
expression,  with  freedom  from  the  possibility  of  being 
misunderstood ;  and  an  easy,  colloquial  style  is  especially 
apt  to  involve  a  number  of  ellipses,  broken  constructions, 
words  of  various  and  not  well-defined  meaning,  and  other 
causes  of  ambiguity.  If,  then,  a  revelation  was  to  be 
given  in  human  language,  and  to  be  expressed  for  the  most 
part  in  that  familiar  style  which  would  make  it  ".  come 
home  to  men's  business  and  bosoms,"  would  make  it  a  book 
for  men  and  women,  and  boys  and  girls,  for  cultivated  and 
uncultivated  people,  it  must  be  an  inevitable  condition  of 
such  a  revelation  that  questions  might  often  arise  as  to  the 
exact  meaning  of  its  details.  The  general  drift  of  a  narra- 
tive, argument,  or  exhortation  may  be  obvious  enough, 
and  its  practical  impression  upon  a  docile  and  susceptible 
mind  may  be  very  distinct,  and  yet  those  who  come  to 
criticise  the  details,  especially  if  they  come  with  prepos- 
sessions and  prejudices,  may  find  numerous  expressions 
capable  of  being  variously  interpreted,  and  perhaps  some 
whose  exact  sense  is  really  doubtful.  Far  better  this,  it 
is  evident,  than  the  idea  of  a  revelation  presented  in  a 
uniformly  didactic  and  rigorously  scientific  style,  which 
must  at  last  fail  of  absolute  precision,  while  it  would  be 
thoroughly  devoid  of  interest  for  the  ordinary  human 
5* 


54  THE    TEXT INTERPRETATION. 

mind.  Let  us,  therefore,  cheerfully  accept  the  necessity 
of  exercising  great  care  when  we  interpret  the  language 
of  Scripture,  as  we  are  compelled  to  do  Avith  all  other 
language. 

Moreover,  there  are  in  our  task  some  peculiar  conditions. 
Many  of  us  have  to  interpret  a  translation.  Now  the  best 
translations  are  necessarily  imperfect.  It  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
the  case  that  two  words  in  different  languages  Avill  contain 
precisely  the  same  bulk  of  meaning  in  the  same  form,  and 
carry  with  them  the  same  atmosphere  of  association  and 
suggestion.  Idiomatic  differences  of  construction,  too,  will 
sometimes  introduce  ambiguity  where  the  original  was 
precise,  or  make  too  definite  what  in  the  original  was  only 
general.  Especially  frequent  are  the  cases  in  wdiich  our 
language  fails  to  indicate  the  emphasis,  which  in  the 
Hebrew  or  the  Greek  may  be  distinctly  marked.  And 
then  the  translation  which  we  employ,  though  its  general 
style  is  so  admirable,  and  though  no  other  popular  trans- 
lation has  ever  equalled  it  in  correctness,  is  disfigured  by 
not  a  few  errors,  and  contains  various  words  and  phrases 
which  have  become  obsolete,  or  have  changed  their  mean- 
ing. Yet  with  all  this,  there  is  nothing  to  discourage  or 
to  excuse  the  preacher  from  earnest  efforts  to  ascertain  the 
true  meaning  of  his  text.  By  working  himself,  through 
extensive,  constant  and  devout  reading  of  the  Bible,  into 
thorough  sympathy  with  its  characteristic  modes  of  thought 
and  forms  of  expression,  by  throwing  himself  upon  the 
current  of  the  general  connection  of  his  text,  so  as  to  be 
borne  over  any  particular  difficulties,  by  comparing  it  wuth 
various  other  passages  in  which  the  same  or  a  kindred 
subject  is  treated,  and  by  consulting  the  works  of  learned 
and  really  judicious  expositors,  the  intelligent  preacher 
who  uses  only  our  English  Version  will  have  great  success 
in  the  interpretation  of  Scripture.  Witness  the  sermons 
and  the  writings  of  b  ^sts  of  Bantist  ministers,  and  also  of 


THE    TEXT INTERPRETATION.  55 

Methodists  and  others.  Witness  Andrew  Fuller,  who  had 
practically  no  knowledge  of  the  original  languages,  and 
yet  whose  interpretations  of  Scripture  are  clear  and  safe 
in  a  degree  very  rarely  surpassed.* 

If  on  the  other  hand  one  uses  the  original  languages  in 
his  interpretation,  there  is  the  danger  of  being  misled  by 
superficial  knowledge  or  hasty  examination.  To  ascertain 
the  exact  meaning  of  words  and  phrases  in  those  lan- 
guages, a  thorough  acquaintance  with  them  is  obviously 
necessary.  It  is  often  said  that  one  needs  a  knowledge  of 
the  Hebrew  and  Greek  in  order  that  he  may  understand 
the  difficult  passages ;  it  would  be  more  nearly  correct, 
though  paradoxical,  to  say  that  such  knowledge  will  help 
him  to  understand  the  easy  passages,  the  great  mass  of 
Scripture.  As  to  the  difficult  places,  an  acquaintance  with 
the  original  language  will  enable  us  to  judge,  with  greater 
confidence  and  correctness,  among  the  various  interpre- 
tations, though  it  be  not  likely  that  we  shall  strike  out 
anything  new,  without  a  profounder  knowledge  than  is 
often  attained.  Such  an  acquaintance  will  also  sometimes 
save  us  from  the  disheartening  notion  that  scholarship 
would  make  it  all  plain,  in  cases  which  have  at  last  to  be 
decided  by  reference  to  the  connection  and  the  general 
teachings  of  Scripture.  But  as  to  the  great  bulk  of  Scrip- 
ture, even  the  slightest  knowledge  of  the  originals  is  of 
service,  in  helping  us  to  enter  into  intellectual  sympathy 
with  the  sacred  writers. 

For  the  language  of  the  Bible  is  pervaded  by  a  Hebra- 

*  Dr.  Chalmers,  in  urging  his  favorite  counsel  that  students  and 
ministers  who  know  the  original  ought  also  to  make  regular  and 
extended  study  of  the  English  Version,  somewhere  refers  to  Andrew 
Fuller  as  a  striking  example  of  the  extent  to  which  a  man  may- 
carry  his  knowledge  of  Scripture  by  the  use  of  the  English  Version 
alone.  Some  brief  and  good  suggestions  on  exposition  are  given  by 
Fuller,  Wo-ks  (ed.  Am.  Bapt.  Pub.  S  c),  Vol.  I,  p.  712. 


56  THE    TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION. 

istic  spirit,  marked  by  Oriental  modes  of  conception,  which 
are  in  many  respects  quite  different  from  those  of  our  own 
people.  This  is  most  clearly  seen  in  the  Old  Testament, 
though  the  New  Testament  Greek  shows  more  or  less  of 
the  same  tinge.  To  read  but  a  few  pages  of  Hebrew,  even 
though  one  should  never  become  capable  of  exact  exegesis, 
cannot  fail  to  aid  a  susceptible  mind  in  the  sympathetic 
comprehension  of  Scripture  ways  of  thinking  and  peculi- 
arities of  expression ;  and  of  course  a  thorough  study  of 
the  Hebrew  and  Greek  will  carry  this  benefit  still  farther. 
The  effect  is  analogous  to  that  of  travelling  in  Palestine. 
Still,  if  a  man  cannot  study  these  languages,  he  must  ear- 
nestly strive  to  catch  the  tone  of  Scripture,  and  even  the 
peculiar  tone  of  its  several  writers.  All  persons  amo/ng 
us  have  unconsciously  attained  something  of  this,  from 
general  reading  of  the  Bible,  and  from  the  extent  to  which 
Scriptural  modes  of  thought  and  expression  pervade  our 
preaching  and  our  religious  literature.  But  strenuous  and 
sustained  effort  in  this  direction  is  demanded  of  those  who 
would  be  good  interpreters  of  Scripture. 

"  In  the  language  of  the  Bible  there  is  a  certain  number 
of  words  which  we  may  call  capital,  the  meaning  of  which 
exactly  seized,  becomes  the  key  of  the  Bible.  If  we  con- 
fine ourselves  purely  and  simply  to  the  usual  signification 
of  the  terms  which  the  translator  uses  in  rendering  such 
words  into  our  language,  we  are  in  great  danger  of  com- 
mitting serious  errors.  Thus,  as  to  the  words  flesh,  soul, 
heart,  fear,  faith,  understanding,  foolish,  light,  darkness, 
just,  righteousness,  salvation,  grace,  good  man,  wicked.  The 
translator  has  translated  for  you  the  words;  you  must 
translate  the  ideas  for  yourselves."  *  The  technical  sense 
in  Scripture  of  such  leading  terms,  we  partly  learn  from 
general  observation  in  reading,  but  may  more  precisely 

*Vinet,  Horn.  p.  111. 


THE    TEXT INTERPRETATION.  57 

ascertain  through  a  comparison,  by  help  of  the  Concord- 
ance, of  many  passages  in  which  they  are  employed. 

Further,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  language  of  Scrip- 
ture is,  as  a  general  thing,  not  philosophical  but  popular, 
not  scientific  but  poetic,  not  so  much  an  analytical  lan- 
guage, fond  of  sharp  discriminations  and  exact  statements, 
as  a  synthetical  language,  abounding  in  concrete  terms, 
the  representatives  not  of  abstractions,  but  of  facts  of  ac- 
tual existence  and  experience,  and  "svhich  in  their  meaning 
gradually  shade  into  each  other,  without  any  definite  line 
of  distinction.  This  character  leads  to  some  peculiar  forms 
of  expression,  which  abound  in  the  Bible,  and  are  import- 
ant for  the  interpretation  of  many  texts. 

• "  A  poetic  language,  a  language  I  mean  of  a  poetic 
people,  delights  alternately  to  diminish  and  augment,  that 
the  imagination  of  the  hearer  or  reader  may  be  exercised 
in  adding  or  retrenching."  E.  g.  "  Whosoever  is  born  of 
God,  doth  not  commit  sin  "  (1  John  3  :  9).  "That  which 
is  highly  esteemed  among  men  is  abomination  in  the  sight 
of  God  "  (Luke  16  :  15).     "  If  any  man  come  to  me  and 

hate  not  his  father  and  mother, he  cannot  be  my 

disciple  "  (Luke  14  :  26).  And,  as  an  example  of  a  dimin- 
ished expression,  "  The  unfruitful  works  of  darkness " 
(Eph.  5  :  11). 

"  It  delights  by  turns  to  make  absolute  that  which  is 
relative,  and  relative  that  which  is  absolute."  Examples 
of  the  former  :  "  When  thou  makest  a  dinner  or  a  supper, 
call  not  thy  friends,  nor  thy  brethren,  neither  thy  kins- 
men, nor  thy  rich  neighbors ; but  call  the  poor, 

the  maimed,"  &c.  (Luke  14  :  12).  This  is  stated  as  an 
absolute  prohibition  of  inviting  friends,  kindred,  rich  neigh- 
bors, and  a  command  to  invite  exclusively  the  other  class. 
We  know  very  well  that  our  Lord  did  not  mean  to  be  thus 
understood,  nor  does  any  one  ever  thus  interpret.  Naturally 
and  as  a  matter  of  course,  nren  will  invite  kindred,  the  rich, 


58  THE    TEXT  —  IXTERPRETATIOX. 

&c.,  and  for  this,  which  is  done  because  of  mere  natural 
affection  or  social  reciprocity,  they  will  get  no  religious 
reward.  But  it  is  so  much  more  important,  on  religious 
grounds  and  in  hope  of  a  Divine  reward,  to  invito  the 
poor  and  suffering,  that  our  Lord  speaks  as  if,  compared 
with  this,  the  former  must  not  be  done  at  all.     In  Prov. 

8  :  10,  we  have  first  the  absolute  form  of  statement,  and 
then  in  the  parallel  clause  the  relative  form :  "  Receive 
my  instruction,  and  not  silver  ;  and  knowledge  rather  than 
choice  gold."  Here  the  former  clause  was  not  meant  to 
be  understood  as  really  making  an  absolute  prohibition  of 
receiving  silver ;  it  is  simply  a  highly  emphatic  way  of 
urging  the  same  thought  tliat  is  presented  in  the  latter 
clause.  In  Gen.  45  :  8,  Joseph  says,  "  So  now  it  was  not 
you  that  sent  me  hither,  but  God."  In  Jer.  7  :  22-3,  God 
declares,  "  1  spake  not  unto  your  fathers,  nor  commanded 
them,  in  the  day  that  I  brought  them  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt,  concerning  burnt  offerings  or  sacrifices ;  but  this 
thing  commanded  I  them,  saying,  Obey  my  voice,  and  I 
will  be"  your  God,  and  ye  shall  be  my  people."  It  was  well 
known  that  God  had  spoken  to  their  fathers  very  exten- 
sively concerning  sacrifices ;  but  the  command  to  obedi- 
ence is  held  to  be  so  much  more  important,  that  the  other 
is  pronounced  nothing  in  the  comparison.     So  with  Matt. 

9  :  13  (Hos.  6  :  6),  "  I  desire  mercy,  and  not  sacrifice." 
All  this  seems  obvious.  But  does  not  the  same  principle 
apply  to  1  Pet.  3  :  3,  "  Whose  adorning  let  it  not  be  that 
outward  adorning  of  plaiting  the  hair,  and  of  wearing  of 
gold,  or  of  putting  on  of  apparel ;  but  let  it  be  the  hidden 
man  of  the  heart,  ....  the  ornament  of  a  meek  and 
quiet  spirit,"  &c.?  (Comp.  1  Tim.  2  :  9.)  The  apostle 
does  not  mean  to  be  understood  as  really  prohibiting  all 
outward  adornment,  any  more  than  the  other  passages 
prohibit  inviting  kindred,  receiving  silver,  or  offering  sac- 
rifices ;  he  means  to  say  emphatically  that  the  most  beau- 


THE     TEXT INTERPRETATION.  59 

tiful  outvrard  adorninfr,  sucli  as  women  so  highly  prize,  is 
as  nothing  in  comparison  with  that  imperishable  adorning 
of  the  spirit,  which  in  the  sight  of  God  is  of  great  price. 
It  is  an  absolute  statement,  designed  to  be  understood  rela- 
tively, but  calculated  by  its  absolute  form  to  be  very  em- 
phatic and  impressive.  If  this  view  of  the  passage  be 
correct,  then  thousands  of  well-meaning  Christians,  and 
more  than  one  organized  body,  have  vainly  striven  to 
eradicate  the  natural  love  of  ornament,  merely  because 
they  did  not  consider  that  the  energetic  language  of  Scrip- 
ture frequently  puts  absolute  for  relative ;  and  at  the  same 
time  thousands  of  others,  through  the  same  mistake,  have 
failed  to  appreciate  the  urgent  and  vehement  exhortation 
to  care  less  for  outward,  and  more  for  inward  adornment. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  following  is  an  example  of  relative 
for  absolute  :  "  This  man  went  down  to  his  house  justified 
rather  than  the  other"  (Luke  18  :  14).  We  understand, 
as  it  was  intended  we  should,  that  the  publican  was  justi- 
fied, while  the  Pharisee,  contrary  to  all  popular  expecta- 
tation,  really  was  not  justified. 

"  It  generalizes  that  which  is  particular,  and  particularizes 
that  which  is  general ;  takes  duty  sometimes  at  its  summit, 
sometimes  at  its  base.  E.  g.  '  Thou  shalt  not  bear  false 
witness  against  thy  neighbor'  (Exod.  20:  16).  It  some- 
times does  not  distinguish  nicely  the  notions  which  are 
closely  related  to  each  other,  such  as  wicked  and  foolish. 
It  delights  in  synonyms  and  parallelisms,  in  advancing  in 
couples  or  pairs  of  ideas.  E.  g.  '  Thy  word  is  a  lamp  unto 
my  feet,  and  a  light  unto  my  path'  (Psa.  119 :  105).  It 
classifies  without  scientific  purpose;  as,  'Create  in  me  a 
clean  heart,  and  renew  a  right  spirit  within  me'  (Psa. 
51 :  12).  The  Old  and  the  New  Testament  abound  in  sim- 
,  ilar  examples.  "We  frequently  find  in  the  prophets  and 
apostles  series  of  substantives  or  adjectives,  which  have 
been  taken  very  improperly  as  the  base   of  divisions  in 


60  THE    TEXT INTERPRETATION. 

discourses."  Thus  in  1  Pet.  4  :  18,  "If  the  righteous 
scarcely  be  saved,  where  shall  the  ungodly  and  the  sinner 
appear?"  it  is  quite  common  to  take  the  ungodly  and  the 
sinner  as  representing  two  distinct  classes,  which  is  not 
justified  by  the  mere  use  of  both  terras,  and  is  in  fact  for- 
bidden by  the  construction  of  the  Greek.  So  as  to  the 
several  terms  in  2  Pet.  1  :  5-7,  distinctions  are  sometimes 
very  unwisely  pressed. 

"  Such  is  the  language  of  the  Bible  ;  and  further,  each 
of  the  epochs  which  are  represented  in  it,  each  of  the  authors 
who  contributed  to  it,  has  a  peculiar  style."  * 

2.  Erroneous  interpretations  arise  from  disregarding  the 
connection  of  the  text.  In  some  cases,  a  sentence  taken  apart 
from  its  connection  would  give  a  positively  wrong  sense. 
E.  g.  "  Nevertheless,  being  crafty,  I  caught  you  with  guile  " 
(2  Cor.  12  :  16).  In  others,  it  would  be  hopelessly  ambig- 
uous, or  utterly  vague.  In  nearly  all  cases,  a  thorough 
understanding  will  require  that  we  examine  the  connection. 
Even  in  those  portions  of  Proverbs,  where  the  several  sen- 
tences appear  wholly  disconnected,  one  may  sometimes 
derive  help  from  observing  what  seems  to  be  the  general 
class  of  topics  which  the  writer  or  collector  has  here  in 
mind.  In  the  Psalms,  even  Psalm  119,  there  is  always  a 
general  drift  by  which  we  may  be  guided.  In  the  narra- 
tives, poetical  treatises,  discourses,  epistolary  arguments, 
etc.,  which  make  up  almost  the  entire  Bible,  the  connection 
is  obviously  important.  It  might  in  fact  seem  needless  to 
insist  on  this.  No  man  of  sense,  in  dealing  with  any  other 
book,  would  think  of  interpreting  a  single  sentence  here  or 
there,  in  entire  disregard  of  its  connection.  If  an  agricul- 
turist or  engineer,  a  physician  or  lawyer,  should  thus  inter- 
pret detached  sentences  in  the  works  which  he  consults  for 

*  These  extracts,  with  some  of  the  passages  of  Scripture  quoted 
in  illustration,  are  from  Vinet,  Horn.  p.  113-4.  The  sentences 
p.xtracted  are  Bometimes  slightly  altered. 


THE     TEXT INTERPRETATIOlNr.  61 

inptriiction  and  practical  guidance,  he  would  be  voted  a 
simpleton. 

Why  in  the  world,  then,  do  men  of  sense  so  often  neglect, 
or  even  knowingly  violate,  the  connection  of  a  Scripture 
text  ?  Partly  from  the  long-continued  and  wide-spread 
practice  of  allegorizing  —  to  be  discussed  below -^*  which 
is  often  most  easily  managed  by  cutting  loose  from  the 
context,  and  which  has  encouraged  men  to  think  that  the 
language  of  Scripture  is  so  very  different  from  all  other 
language,  as  to  be  independent  of  the  principles  which 
ordinarily  govern  interpretation.  It  is  a  mournful  fact 
that  Universalists,  Komanists,  Mormons,  can  find  an  ap- 
parent support  for  their  heresies  in  Scripture,  without 
interpreting  more  loosely,  without  doing  greater  violence 
to  the  meaning  and  connection  of  the  sacred  text  than  is 
sometimes  done  by  orthodox,  devout  and  even  inteHigent 
men.  A  second  cause  is  the  exclusive  use  of  short  texts. 
Men  of  ordinary  powers  cannot  always  find  short  passages 
which,  interpreted  in  the  light  of  the  connection,  will 
furnish  them  material  enough  for  a  sermon ;  and  they  are 
tempted  to  make  some  additional  application  of  the  words 
which  the  connection  does  not  admit,  or  even  to  break  a 
sentence  away  from  its  connection,  and  give  it  an  entirely 
new  application,  which  would  make  it  a  striking  text.* 
Under  such  pressure,  and  encouraged  by  the  example  of 
good  and  honored  brethren,  they  interpret  as  suits  them  ; 
and  the  habit  thus  formed  is  perhaps  confirmed  by  indolence, 
seeing  that  it  is  often  troublesome  to  study  the  context. 

And  there  is  yet  another  cause.  Some  six  centu- 
ries ago  there  began  the  present  division  of  the  Bible 
into  chapters,  and  some  three  centuries  ago  the  subdivi- 
sion into  verses.  Both  were  made  for  convenience  in  refer- 
ence, just  as  somewhat  similar  divisions  and  subdivisions 

*  See  on  Expository  Preaching,  Part  II,  chap.  3. 
6 


C2  THE    TEXT  —  INTERPTIETATION'. 

have  from  time  to  time  been  made  in  the  text  of  many  Greek 
and  Latin  autliors.  In  the  classics,  however,  only  the  larger 
divisions,  the  chapters,  have  been  printed  as  separate,  the 
subdivisions  being  put  together  according  to  the  sense,  and 
merely  noted  on  the  margin  or  within  the  text.  Unfortu- 
nately, a  different  course  has  been  pursued  in  printing  the 
Bible;  beginning  with  the  Genevan  Version,  it  has  become 
common  to  print  each  verse  as  a  separate  paragraph. 
This  mode  of  printing  was  probably  introduced  partly 
because  of  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  Psalms,  in  which 
the  successive  sentences  are  frequently  distinct ;  it  was 
also  calculated  to  save  trouble  in  finding  verses,  and  the 
practice  at  one  time  existed  of  printing  "references"  not  as 
we  do  in  the  margin,  but  at  the  end  of  each  verse.  What- 
ever causes  established  the  custom,  it  has  long  been  a  cus- 
tom, and  some  persons  even  defend  it  because  it  makes  the 
Bible  look  different  from  other  books.  Now  the  division 
into  verses,  as  well  as  that  into  chapters,  was  very  care- 
lessly made,  and  often  sadly  disregards  the  connection  and 
obscures  the  sense.  And  even  if  the  verses  were  better 
divided,  the  separate  printing  of  brief  sentences  and  parts 
of  sentences  must  of  necessity  make  it  more  difficult  to 
keep  up  the  general  connection,  particularly  as  we  are 
accustomed,  in  all  other  books,  to  a  division  into  para- 
graphs, which  mark  the  connection  clearly.  The  result 
has  been  to  lead  both  preachers  and  hearers  to  think  of 
every  chapter  and  every  verse  as  a  sort  of  separate  whole. 
It  is  curious  to  observe  how  rarely  we  hear  read  in  public 
the  latter  part  of  one  chapter  and  the  earlier  part  of  the 
next,  though  the  slightest  care  for  the  real  connection  of 
narrative  or  argument  would  often  require  this ;  and  how 
awkward  it  would  seem  to  take  the  last  words  of  one  verse 
and  the  first  words  of  another  as  a  text.  To  dispel  this 
illusion,  which  makes  every  verse  a  paragraph,  and  every 
chapter  almost  a  distinct  book,  is  a  matter  of  serious  im- 


THE    TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION.  63 

portance  for  all  persons,  ministers  or  others,  who  wish 
really  to  understand  the  Bible.  Much  advantage  may  be 
derived  from  habitually  reading  a  Paragraph  Bible.*  No 
other  mode  of  printing  is  now  tolerated  in  the  Greek,  and 
in  Hebrew  the  paragraphs  marked  by  the  early  Jewish 
scholars  have  always  been  retained. 

It  would  seem  plain  from  what  has  been  said,  that  the 
preacher  who  wishes  to  deal  fairly  with  his  own  mind  and 
with  God's  Word,  must  determine  that  he  will  never  inter- 
pret a  text  without  careful  regard  to  its  connection. f 
The  considerations  presented  may  explain  how  it  is  that 
many  devout  and  sometimes  able  brethren  have  been  led 
to  do  otherwise,  and  censure  of  their  course  is  not  pro- 
posed ;  but  when  a  man's  attention  has  been  distinctly 
called  to  the  matter,  he  is  solemnly  bound  to  give  heed  to 
it  in  practice.  How  shall  one  reconcile  it  with  the  respon- 
sibility of  his  position,  to  stand  before  men  in  God's  name, 
and  say  that  a  passage  of  the  blessed  Bible  means  any- 
thing else  than  what  he  is  satisfied,  from  the  phraseology 
and  the  connection,  that  it  really  does  mean  ? 

In  one  direction,  however,  the  idea  of  strict  interpreta- 
tion may  be  carried  too  far.  It  is  certainly  best,  as  a 
general  rule,  to  confine  our  sermon  to  the  precise  subject, 
and  aspect  of  a  subject,  which  the  text  in  its  connection 
sets  forth. J  But  we  are  not  necessarily  restricted  to  this. 
Some  principle  may  be  presented  by  the  text  in  one  appli- 

*  Bagster  has  published  Paragraph  Bibles,  in  various  styles. 
The  Annotated  Paragraph  Bible  of  the  London  Religious  Tract 
Society  is  well  arranged,  and  has  also  very  valuable  notes.  The 
American  Baptist  Publication  Society  has  a  Bible,  and  a  New  Testa- 
ment, printed  in  paragraphs,  and  suflficiently  cheap.  The  Revised 
New  Testament  and  other  publications  of  the  American  Bible  Union 
have  the  advantage  of  being  printed  in  the  same  way. 

t  See  below,  ^  4,  Rule  2. 

X  Comp.  on  Subject-sermons,  Part  II,  chap.  3. 


64  THE    TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION. 

cation,  and  we  may  with  perfect  propriety  make  other 
applications  of  it.  That  is  not  violating  the  connection, 
for  the  text  really  teaches  the  principle,  and  the  new 
applications  are  avowedly  made  hy  ourselves,  guided  by 
the  general  teachings  of  Scripture.  The  apostle  Paul 
quite  frequently  states  a  broad  principle  as  bearing  on 
some  particular  question  of  truth  or  duty.  E.  g.  Gal.  6  :  7, 
"Whatsoever  a  man  soweth,  that  shall  he  also  reap,"  is 
said  with  special  reference  to  the  duty  of  contributing  to 
the  support  of  religious  teachers,  but  it  is  given  as  a  general 
truth,  and  admits  of  many  applications.  In  Rom.  14 :  12, 
the  special  thought  is  that  "every  one  of  us  will  give 
account  of  himself ,''  and  so  we  must  not  judge  one  another; 
but  there  is  of  course  involved  in  this  the  general  fact  that 
every  one  will  give  account,  and  thus  the  passage  really 
presents  the  subject  of  accountability.  Many  similar 
examples  might  be  found  throughout  the  Bible.  In  other 
cases,  we  may  start  from  the  precise  point  given  by  the 
text  and  advance  to  related  truths.  We  thus  extend  the 
application  of  the  text,  but  in  a  direction  not  foreign  but 
akin  to  the  sacred  writer's  specific  design.  Thus  in  Amos 
4;  12,  "Prepare  to  meet  thy  God,"  the  prophet  gives 
warning  of  impending  temporal  judgments  upon  the  nation, 
and  calls  upon  them  to  prepare  to  meet  God  in  these. 
Now  it  is  lawful  for  us,  after  pointing  out  this,  to  show 
that  if  we  continue  in  sin  we  must  all  meet  God,  not  only 
in  temporal  judgments  but  in  the  vengeance  of  the  great 
day,  and  thus  call  on  our  hearers  to  prepare  for  eternity. 
This  is  not  disregarding  the  connection,  not  misinterpret- 
ing the  text,  it  is  simply  carrying  the  idea  farther  in  the 
same  direction ;  carrying  it  farther  on  our  own  responsi- 
bility, with  no  assertion  or  implication  that  the  sacred 
writer  referred  to  all  the  topics  which  our  discourse 
includes.  It  thus  appears  that  one  may  preach  from  a 
text  on  any  matter  which  it  presents  to  the  mind,  whether 


THE    TEXT INTERPRETATION.  65 

directly  or  indirectly,  by  statement,  presupposition  or 
inference,  provided  that  in  some  way  it  really  does  mean 
what  is  claimed  ;  and  where  this  is  something  only  indi- 
rectly presented,  it  will  be  best  to  point  out,  in  some  simple 
way,  that  such  is  the  case,  so  as  not  to  encourage  the  people 
in  loose  notions  on  the  subject  of  interpretation.  How 
different  is  such  a  course  from  that  of  a  preacher  who  gave 
a  Missionary  sermon  from  the  words  of  the  young  ruler, 
"  What  lack  I  yet  ? "  inquiring  what  we  lack  for  greater 
success  in  the  missionary  enterprise.  This  is  an  extreme 
case ;  but  thousands  of  sermons  are  preached  in  which  the 
connection  and  real  meaning  of  the  text  is  just  as  com- 
pletely, though  not  often  so  manifestly,  disregarded  and 
violated. 

The  remark  may  be  here  added,  that  where  a  text  in  its 
connection  admits  of  more  than  one  meaning,  we  shall  do 
well  either  to  avoid  it  as  too  ambiguous  for  our  purpose,  or 
to  indicate  that  we  take  the  more  probable  sense,  and  con- 
fine attention  to  its  lessons  as  thus  understood.  The  plan 
of  taking  up  in  succession  several  different  senses  and 
making  a  practical  application  of  each,  cannot  be  approved. 
We  must  bring  to  bear  upon  men's  minds  as  a  part  of 
God's  Word,  only  what  the  text  really  means,  as  best  we 
can  ascertain  it.  — 

3.  A  third  source  of  error  in  the  interpretation  of  texts 
is  improper  spiritualizing. 

We  have  no  other  means  of  representing  spiritual  things 
than  by  metaphors  derived  from  things  temporal ;  and  our 
very  conceptions  of  the  unseen  Avorld  depend  upon  images 
furnished  by  the  world  in  which  we  now  live.  Swedenborg 
taught,  in  the  "  doctrine  of  correspondences  "  upon  which 
he  asserts  the  Scriptures  to  have  been  written,  that  every 
object  and  relation  in  the  material  sphere  has  something 
corresponding  to  it  in  the  spiritual  sphere.  As  a  universal 
fact,  we  may  weH  ask  for  some  better  proof  of  this  than 


6G  THE    TEXT INTERPRETATION. 

the  Swedish  Baron's  visions ;  but  it  is  going  to  the  oppo- 
site extreme  if  we  imagine  that  the  relation  between  things 
temporal  and  spiritual  is  simply  an  affair  of  metaphors. 
The  Scriptures  appear  to  teach  that  there  really  is  much 
of  intimate  connection  and  much  of  close  correspondence 
between  these  two  great  spheres  of  existence.  All  the 
false  religions  present  perversions  and  distortions  of  this 
conception.  And  the  allegorical,  in  the  broad  sense  of 
that  term,  is  very  widely  and  variously  employed  in  the 
Scriptures  of  truth.  The  numerous  sacrifices  and  purifi- 
cations enjoined  in  the  law,  represented  the  work  of  Christ 
and  of  his  Spirit.  The  prophets  frequently  employed 
objects  or  events  near  at  hand  to  picture  realities  belonging 
to  the  Messianic  age.  The  history  of  Israel  had  a  typical 
relation,  on  the  one  hand  to  the  life  of  Christ,  on  the  other 
to  the  fortunes  of  his  Church ;  and  Zion,  the  capital  city 
and  representative  of  Israel,  furnished  a  favorite  prophetic 
image  in  depicting  the  future  of  the  spiritual  Israel. 
Individual  personages  of  history,  as  IMelchizedek,  Moses, 
Joshua,  David,  Cyrus,  undoubtedly  bore  a  divinely- 
designed  resemblance,  in  some  respects,  to  the  coming 
Messiah.  The  relation  between  husband  and  wife  afforded 
an  oft-recurring  image  of  the  relation  between  God  and 
the  chosen  nation,^between  Christ  and  his  Church.  Even 
the  enmity  of  Sarah  and  Hagar  pictured  the  opposition 
between  bondage  under  the  law  and  liberty  in  the  gospel. 
With  such  a  foundation  in  the  nature  of  things,  and  with 
so  much  support  in  the  actual  usage  of  the  Bible,  it  is  not 
strange  that  there  has  always  been  on  the  part  of  some  men 
a  tendency  to  spiritualize,  widely  and  wildly,  the  language 
of  Scripture.  It  is  common  to  speak  of  Origen  (3rd  cent.) 
as  the  father  of  Christian  allegorizing;  but  it  abounds 
already  in  some  writers  of  the  2nd  cent.,  and  Origen 
learned  much  of  it,  as  regards  the  Old  Testament,  from 
Philo  the  Jew,  a  contemporary  of  our  Lord,  the  Alexan- 


THE    TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION.  67 

drian  Jews  having  long  been  engaged  in  this  sort  of  specula- 
tion. Origen's  transcendent  ability,  learning,  and  power  of 
creative  imagination  contributed  much  to  make  fanciful 
allegorizing  popular  among  Christians.  Most  of  the  great 
Fathers,  who  have  ever  since  exerted  so  powerful  an 
influence,  are  grievously  infected  with  this  evil.  At  the 
present  day,  not  a  few  of  the  most  learned  and  devout 
preachers  in  the  Church  of  England  and  among  the  Ger- 
man Lutherans  run  wild  with  their  imitations,  of  Patristic 
allegorizing ;  while  many  very  ignorant  men,  of  various 
denominations,  following  only  the  methods  caught  from 
older  preachers  in  their  locality,  bring  out  the  "  spiritual 
sense  "  of  the  plainest  narratives  and  precepts  in  a  fashion 
wholly  unwarranted  and  often  painfully  absurd.  In  the 
denominations  not  controlled  by  "the  Fathers,"  better 
views  of  interpretation  have  for  some  time  prevailed. 
Among  Baptists,  for  instance,  the  influence  of  Fuller  and 
Hall,  and  the  wider  diffusion  of  ministerial  education, 
have  wrought  a  gratifying  change.  But  there  is  still  much 
ignorance  to  overcome,  and  too  many  able  and  honored 
ministers  continue  sometimes  to  sanction  the  old-fashioned 
spiritualizing  by  their  potent  example.  It  is  so  easy  and 
pleasant,  for  men  of  fertile  fancy,  to  break  aAvay  from 
laborious  study  of  phraseology  and  connection,  to  cease 
plodding  along  the  rough  and  homely  paths  of  earth,  and 
sport,  free  and  rejoicing,  in  the  open  heaven;  the  people 
are  so  charmed  by  ingenious  novelties,  so  carried  away 
with  imaginative  flights,  so  delighted  to  find  everywhere 
types  of  Christ  and  likenesses  to  the  spiritual  life ;  it  is  so 
common  to  think  that  whatever  kindles  the  imagination 
and  touches  the  heart  must  be  good  preaching,  and  so  easy 
to  insist  that  the  doctrines  of  the  sermon  are  in  themselves 
true  and  Scriptural,  though  they  be  not  actually  taught  in 
the  text,  —  that  preachers  often  lose  sight  of  their  funda- 
mental and  inexcusable  error,  of  saying  that  a  passage  of  t. 


68  THE    TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION. 

God's  Word  means  what  it  does  not  mean.  So  independent, 
too,  one  may  feel ;  so  original  he  may  think  himself.  Com- 
mentaries, he  can  sneer  at  them  all ;  other  preachers,  he 
has  little  need  of  comparing  views  with  them.  No  need  of 
anything  but  the  resources  of  his  own  imagination,  for  such 
preaching  is  too  often  only  building  castles  in  the  air. 

The  tendency  to  error  in  this  direction  is  also  increased 
by  the  fact,  that  it  is  impossible,  in  respect  to  spiritualizing, 
to  draw  a  line  of  unquestionable  distinction  between  what  is 
and  what  is  not  allowable.  Whatever  in  the  Old  Testament 
is  used  by  New  Testament  writers  as  having  a  spiritual 
sense,  is  of  course  beyond  question.  Many  insist  that  we 
must  stop  at  this ;  that  nothing  whatever  is  to  be  under- 
stood allegorically,  save  by  distinct  New  Testament  au- 
thority. Theoretically,  this  appears  to  be  too  strict  a 
rule ;  for  in  the  case  of  other  objects  or  events  precisely 
similar  to  those  which  are  used  spiritually  in  the  New 
Testament,  it  would  be  unwise  to  deny  that  these  also  may 
have  such  a  sense.  But  practically  as  to  texts,  we  can 
never  feel  safe  in  going  beyond  this  rule ;  anything  not 
thus  used  in  the  New  Testament  can  only  be  spoken  of  as 
possibly,  or  at  most  as  probably,  having  an  allegorical 
meaning ;  and  while  possible  or  probable  interpretations, 
when  distinctly  stated  to  be  such,  may  be  properly  used  as 
part  of  the  argument  or  illustration  of  a  sermon,  the  text, 
which  is  the  foundation  or  source  of  the  whole  sermon, 
ought  in  the  preacher's  judgment  really  to  have,  beyond 
peradvenlure,  the  meaning  assigned  to  it.  It  should  be 
added,  that  portions  of  Scripture  which  cannot  be  inter- 
preted as  having  a  spiritual  meaning,  may  yet  be  em- 
ployed in  various  ways  for  teaching  spiritual  truth.  They 
may  embody  principles,  capable  of  an  application  to  spir- 
itual things,  though  such  an  application  must  be  made  by 
the  preacher  on  his  own  responsibility,  and  received  by  the 
people  on  their  own  judgment,  not  as  a  part  of  the  teach- 
ings of  Scripture.     Or  they  may  furnish  illustrations  of 


THE   TEXT  —  intebpretatio:n^.  09 

spiritual  truth,  just  as  we  may  derive  illustration  from 
everything  in  nature,  history  and  common  life."^ 

And  observe:  In  the  case  of  figurative  passages,  which. 
really  have  a  spiritual  meaning,  there  is  danger  of  pressing 
the  figure  too  far,  of  fancying  a  spiritual  sense  in  aspects 
or  details  of  the  figure  which  are  not  really  within  the 
scope  of  the  inspired  writer.  When  our  Lord  says,  "Take 
my  yoke  upon  you,"  we  have  no  right  to  hunt  up  all  man- 
ner of  details  as  to  yokes  and  oxen,  and  run  a  fanciful 
parallel  as  to  each  particular;  the  general  meaning  is 
plain  enough,  and  that  is  all.  When  he  says,  "  Be  ye 
wise  as  serpents,"  or,  "  I  will  make  you  fishers  of  men," 
and  in  ten  thousand  passages  of  Scripture,  the  same  prin- 
ciple holds.  We  must  inquire  what  the  sacred  speaker 
or  writer  designed  by  the  figure ;  so  much  it  means,  but 
beyond  that,  as  a  part  of  Scripture,  it  means  nothing.f 
Especially  common  are  errors  of  this  kind  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  our  Lord's  Parables.  The  stories  which  were  told 
by  the  Great  Teacher  are  illustrations  of  unrivalled  beauty 
and  impressiveness,  but  still  they  are  illustrations.  Like 
the  illustrative  comparisons  and  incidents  which  we  em- 
ploy, some  of  them  are  founded  upon  a  closer,  and  others 
upon  a  more  remote,  resemblance  or  analogy ;  some  run 
parallel  for  a  long  distance  to  the  subject  compared  wath 
them,  others  barely  touch  it  at  a  single  point.  When 
Christ's  coming  is  said  to  be  as  a  thief  in  the  night,  the 
resemblance  extends  only  to  unexpectedness;  as  to  the 
character  and  objects  of  the  parties,  and  almost  everything 
else  that  is  involved,  the  illustration  and  the  tiling  illus- 
trated are  utterly  unlike.  And  when  it  is  said,  "The 
kingdom  of  heaven  is  like  leaven,  which  a  woman  took, 
and  hid  in  three  measures  of  meal,  till  the  whole  was 

*  Comp.  Vinet,  p.  120. 

f  There  is  good  instruction  on  this  subject  in  FairVairn's  Hcrme- 
neutical  Manual,  p.  157-173, 


rO  THE    TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION. 

leavened"  (Matthew  13  :  33),  what  sense  is  there  in  look« 
ing  for  some  spiritual  truth  illustrated  by  the  number 
three,  or  in  saying  that  the  ivoman  represents  the  Church, 
when  as  a  matter  of  course  a  woman  and  not  a  man  would 
be  introduced  in  a  story  as  making  up  bread  ?  In  under- 
taking to  interpret  a  parable,  we  must  learn  from  the  con- 
nection what  subject  our  Lord  used  it  to  illustrate  —  must 
then  notice  what  light  the  parable  as  a  whole  throws  on 
that  subject,  what  aspects  of  the  subject  it  brings  to  our 
view  —  and  finally  inquire  how  far  we  may  fairly  regard 
the  several  details  of  the  story  as  separately  significant. 
In  this  last  respect  we  must  avoid  extremes,  exercise  sound 
judgment,  and  constantly  keep  in  mind  that  the  parable 
is  an  illustration,  and  founded  on  some  resemblance  or 
analogy  which  is  at  best  only  partial.  After  thus  studying 
one  of  the  parables  of  Christ,  we  are  prepared  to  preach 
upon  it,  with  some  prospect  of  bringing  out  its  real  mean- 
ing and  legitimate  applications. 

§  4.    EXAMPLES   OF   TEXTS    OFTEN   MISAPPLIED. 

There  has  been  during  the  present  century  considerable  improve- 
ment in  various  quarters  as  regards  strict  interpretation  in  the 
pulpit.  But  to  show  how  much  laxity  on  the  subject  still  prevails, 
it  is  proposed  to  mention  a  few  examples  of  passages  which  we 
have  all  heard  preached  upon,  or  used  by  preachers  in  argument, 
and  whose  meaning  is  beyond  question  very  diflferent  from  that 
commonly  attached  to  them.  It  is  strange  how  powerful  is  the 
tradition  of  the  pulpit ;  how  often  able  and  thoughtful  men  will  go 
all  their  lives  taking  for  granted  that  an  important  passage  has  that 
meaning  which  in  youth  they  heard  ascribed  to  it,  when  the  slight- 
est examination  would  show  them  that  it  is  far  otherwise.  The 
examples  here  given  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  three  sources 
of  error  as  to  interpretation  which  have  been  discussed  in  the  fore- 
going section,  though  of  course  these  will  sometimes  be  combined 
in  the  same  passage. 

1.  Misunderstanding  the  phraseology  of  the  text  itself.  Jer.  3  :  4, 
♦'  My  father,  thou  art  the  guide  of  my  youth."     This  is  very  often 


THE     TEXT INTERPRETATION.  71 

used  in  preaching  to  the  young,  and  given  as  a  motto  on  the  title- 
page  of  books  for  the  young,  the  idea  being  that  young  people 
should  seek  the  guidance  of  our  Heavenly  Father.  But  this  is  to 
miss  the  Scripture  use  of  the  phrase,  "  guide  of  my  youth,"  as  well 
as  to  disregard  the  connection  of  the  passage.  In  Prov.  2  :  17  it  is 
plain  that  '  guide  of  her  youth '  (more  exactly,  companion,  asso- 
ciate of  her  youth)  denotes  the  husband.  Here  in  Jeremiah  it  is 
the  same  Hebrew  word.  The  whole  connection  of  chap.  2  and  3 
shows  that  God  through  the  prophet  is  reproaching  the  nation  as 
an  adulterous  spouse,  who  deserves  to  be  utterly  cast  off;  but  still 
he  invites  her  to  return  to  him.  "  Wilt  thou  not  from  this  time  cry 
unto  me.  My  father,  thou  art  the  guide  of  my  youth?  '"  Thou  art 
my  early  husband,  the  companion  of  my  youth  (comp.  Jer.  2:2; 
Hos.  2  :  15),  and  I  return  unto  thee.  And  the  term  'father'  is  just 
a  respectful  form  of  address  used  by  the  wife  to  her  husband,  as 
Naaman's  servants  called  him  'my  father'  (2  Kings  5:  13).  Thus 
the  common  application  of  the  passage  is  utterly  erroneous. 

Eccl.  12  : 1,  "  Remember  now  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth." 
Here  the  word  'now'  is  often  much  insisted  on.  But  the  Hebrew 
is  simply  'and  remember,*  etc.  Our  translators,  not  perceiving  the 
propriety  of  the  connection  indicated  by  'and,'  and  finding  it  en- 
tirely omitted  by  their  favorite  authorities,  the  Vulgate  and  Luther, 
used,  as  a  sort  of  compromise,  the  particle  of  transition  'now.' 
The  connection  is  really  very  fine.     'Rejoice,  0  young  man,  in  thy 

youth  ....  and  walk  in  the  ways  of  thine  heart and  know 

that  for  all  these  things  God  will  bring  thee  into  judgment.  And 
remove  sorrow  from  thy  heart,  and  put  away  evil  from  thy  flesh ; 
for  childhood  and  youth  are  a  breath.  And  remember  thy  Creator 
in  the  days  of  thy  youth,'  etc. 

Prov.  8  :  17,  "They  that  seek  me  early  shall  find  me."  This  does 
not  at  all  mean  early  in  life,  as  it  is  so  constantly  taken.  Our 
translators,  following  the  Vulgate,  understood  the  Hebrew  to  sig- 
nify early  in  the  morning,  there  being  a  cognate  word  which  denotes 
morning;  and  the  idea  they  intended  to  convey  was  similar  to  that 
of  Jer.  7:13,  "And  I  spake  unto  you,  rising  up  early  and  speak- 
ing, but  ye  heard  not."  Their  phrase  thus  gives  substantially  the 
same  sense  with  the  view  of  recent  scholars,  who  suppose  that  there 
is  no  connection  with  the  idea  of  morning,  and  explain  the  word  as 
signifying  to  seek  (so  the  Septuagint),  or  to  seak  zealously,  ear- 
nestly (Comp.  Prov.  1  :  28;  Psa.  63  :  1  ;  Hos.  5  :  15).  Thus  the 
passage  has  no  specific,  much  less  exclusive  reference  to  the  young 


72  THE     TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION. 

Psa.  23  :  4,  "Yea,  thoug-h  I  walk  through  the  valley  of  the  shadow 
of  death,  I  will  fear  no  evil."  To  many  it  would  seem  almost  sac- 
rilege to  say  that  this  passage  has  no  direct  reference  to  the  time 
when  one  is  drawing  near  to  death.  The  shadow  of  death,  the  dark 
place  where  the  dead  are,  is  an  image  frequently  employed  in  the 
Old  Testament  to  denote  the  densest  darkness.  Thus  in  Amos 
5  :  8,  God  is  described  as  "He  that  maketh  the  seven  stars  and 
Orion,  and  turneth  the  shadow  of  death  into  the  morning,  and 
maketh  the  day  dark  with  night."  Here  it  means  the  darkness  of 
night.  In  Psa.  107  :  10,  "  Such  as  sat  in  darkness  and  the  shadow 
of  death,  bound  in  affliction  and  iron."  the  reference  is  to  the  dark- 
ness of  a  dungeon.  In  Jer.  2:7,"  Where  is  the  Lord  that  brought 
us  up  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  that  led  us  through  the  wilder- 
ness   through  a  land  of  drought,  and  of  the  shadow  of  death, 

through  a  land  that  no  man  passed  through,"  the  darkness  of  a 
gloomy  desert  is  meant.  In  Isa.  9:2,"  The  people  that  walked  in 
darkness  have  seen  a  great, light ;  they  that  dwell  in  the  land  of  the 
shadow  of  death,  upon  them  hath  the  light  shined,"  it  is  the  dark- 
ness of  destitution,  ignorance  and  affliction.  (Comp.  Matt.  4  :.16.) 
The  phrase  is  used  in  various  other  passages,  but  always  meaning 
dense  darkness,  literal  or  figurative,  and  nowhere  having  any  ref- 
erence to  dying.  Now  in  Psa.  23  :  4,  the  image  is  that  of  a  flock 
led  through  a  deep,  narrow,  very  dark  valley,  such  as  abound  in 
Judea,  with  wild  beasts  lurking  in  the  thickets  on  either  hand, 
where  the  timid  sheep  woiild  fear  hurt,  unless  protected  by  the  shep- 
herd ;  the  Psalmist  says  that  though  walking  in  the  darkest  valley, 
dark  as  the  grave,  he  will  fear  no  evil,  &c.  And  the  image  will 
naturally  suggest  any  season  or  experience  of  life  in  which  the 
believer  would  naturally  feel  alarm  and  distress,  but  may  be  safe 
in  his  Shepherd's  presence  and  protection.*  Such  are  temptation, 
sickness,  bereavement,  and  death  too,  not  because  the  word  death  is 
employed,  but  because  the  image  of  passing  through  a  valley  dark 
as  the  grave  naturally  applies  to  death,  and  not  as  the  single  appli- 
cation, but  as  one  of  many.  Thus  a  correct  understanding  of  the 
passage  does  not  destroy,  but  widens,  its  significance. 

Rom.  12:  1,  "Present  your  bodies  a  living  sacrifice."  Here 
many  will  begin  to  speak  of  making  sacrifices,  in  our  derivative 
sense  of  that  term.     But  the  thought  of  the  text  is,  that  as  men 

*"Bunyan  in  the  Pilgrim's  Progress  uses  the  image  correctly,  making 
his  pilgrim  pass  through  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death  some  time 
before  he  reaches  the  river. 


THE    TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION.  73 

presented  at  the  altar  the  bodies  of  beasts  as  sacrifices,  so  we  must 
consecrate  ourselves  unto  God  :  and  this  is  a  "  reasonable  service," 
a  worship  of  the  rational  or  spiritual  nature,  and  not  a  mere  bodily 
worship,  made  up  of  outward  acts  and  ofiferings. 

1  Tim.  2  :  8,  "I  will  that  men  pray  everywhere,"  etc.  The  Greek 
gives  'the  men,'  and  has  the  peculiar  word  which  signifies  man  as 
opposed  to  woman.  The  apostle  is  giving  directions  for  the  con- 
duct of  public  worship,  and  says  that  the  men  must  pray  in  every 
place,  lifting  up  holy  hands,  without  wrath  and  disputing.  These 
phrases  embody  the  special  dangers  with  reference  to  men,  when 
engaging  in  public  worship;  and  in  the  next  verse  he  says  that 
women,  for  their  part,  must  not  dress  too  fine,  but  be  adorned  with 
good  works. 

2  Tim.  2  :  15,  "Study  to  show  thyself  approved  unto  God,"  etc. 
This  is  often  quoted,  and  sometimes  made  a  text,  as  teaching  that 
a  minister  must  study,  viz.  study  books,  especially  the  Bible  — 
study  nature,  human  nature,  etc.  The  real  meaning  of  our  version, 
as  of  the  original,  is  endeavor,  studiously  endeavor  to  present  thy- 
self approved  unto  God. 

Heb.  7  :  25,  "  Wherefore  he  is  able  to  save  them  to  the  uttermost 
that  come  to  God  by  him,"  is  a  favorite  text  as  showing  that  Christ 
is  able  to  save  the  worst  sinners.  The  real  meaning  of  the  phrase 
—  as  the  connection  also  might  show — is,  save  to  the  utmost,  to 
the  full  extent  of  saving.  As  our  High  Priest  does  not  transmit  his 
office  to  successors,  and  leave  to  others  the  work  he  has  begun,  but 
ever  lives  to  intercede  for  those  who  come  to  God  through  him,  he  is 
able  to  save  them  completely  —  not  merely  to  begin  their  salvation, 
but  to  carry  it  forward  in  life  and  death  till  in  eternity  it  is  complete. 

2.  Disregarding  the  connection. 

Col.  2:  21,  "Touch  not,  taste  not.  handle  not."  These  words 
have  been  a  thousand  times  blazoned  on  banners,  and  quoted  by 
impassioned  orators,  as  a  precept  of  Holy  "Writ  against  the  use  of 
intoxicating  drinks.  The  slightest  attention  to  the  connection 
would  show,  that  in  the  first  place,  they  are  not  spoken  with  any 
reference  to  that  subject,  and  in  the  second  place,  that  they  are 
given  by  the  apostle  as  an  example  of  ascetic  precepts  to  which  we 
ought  not  to  conform.  "  If  ye  died  with  Christ  from  the  rudiments  of 
the  world,  why,  as  though  living  iri  the  world,  are  ye  subject  to  ordi- 
nances, Handle  not,  taste  not,  touch  not, after  the  command- 
ments and  teachings  of  men  ? "  There  are  many  passages  of  Scripture 
■which  enjoin  Temj  erance,  but  this  is  certainly  not  one  of  them. 
7 


74  THE    TEXT  —  IXTERPRETATION. 

Heb.  6  :  1,  "  Let  us  go  on  unto  perfection,"  is  a  favorite  text  with 
some  of  those  who  maintain  the  possibility  of  sinless  perfection  in 
this  life.  But  the  sacred  writer  is  speaking  of  knoivlcdge,  and  urges 
progress  toward  maturity  of  knowledge.  The  word  in  the  preced- 
ing verse  (5  :  14)  rendered  'of  full  age'  is  literally  'perfect ;  '  so 
that  the  two  verses  have  a  close  verbal  connection,  besides  the 
general  connection  in  sense. 

1  Cor.  2  :  9,  "Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  have 
entered  into  the  heart  of  man,  the  things  which  God  hath  prepared 
for  them  that  love  him,"  is  constantly  quoted  as  referring  to  the 
glory  and  blessedness  of  heaven ;  but  the  connection  leaves  no 
doubt  that  the  apostle  refers  to  the  profound  wisdom  of  the  plan 
of  salvation,  which  no  human  mind  could  have  perceived  or  imag- 
ined, but  which  "God  has  revealed  unto  us  by  his  Spirit." 

Mark  9  :  8,  "Jesus  only."  To  make  these  words  a  text,  and  dis- 
course upon  Jesus  only  as  Prophet,  Jesus  only  as  Priest,  Jesus  only 
as  King,  etc.,  is  an  extreme  instance  of  disregarding  the  context. 
At  the  close  of  the  transfiguration,  "suddenly,  when  they  had 
looked  round  about,  they  saw  no  man  any  more,  save  Jesus  only 
with  themselves."  Now  it  is  very  true  that  we  must  have  Jesus 
only  as  Prophet,  Priest  and  King,  but  who  will  say  that  this  pas- 
sage teaches  that,  or  even  fairly  suggests  it  ?  And  the  mere  words, 
taken  entirely  apart  from  what  the  sacred  writer  meant  by  them, 
are  no  more  a  saying  of  Scripture,  than  if  'Jesus'  had  been  taken 
from  Mark,  and  'only'  from  Romans:  and  the  two  combined  as  a 
text. 

Isa.  1  :  5,  6,  "  The  whole  head  is  sick,  and  the  whole  heart  faint. 
From  the  sole  of  the  foot  even  unto  the  head  there  is  no  soundness 
in  it ;  but  wounds,  and  bruises,  and  putrefying  sores,"  etc.  This  ia 
sometimes  used  as  a  text,  and  perpetually  cited  as  a  proof-text,  to 
show  the  total  depravity  of  man.  But  look  at  the  connection.  The 
nation  of  Israel  had  been  stricken  with  the  DWmQ  judgments,  till  it 
was  like  a  man  beaten  with  the  terrible  Oriental  scourging,  from 
head  to  foot,  and  with  wounds  and  stripes  unhealed;  the  country 
was  desolate,  the  cities  burned,  and  Jerusalem  stood  alone  in  a 
wilderness.  And  the  prophet  asks,  Why  should  ye  be  stricken  any 
more?  If  it  is  done,  you  will  revolt  still  more.  Already  you  are 
beaten  from  head  to  foot,  but  punishment  makes  you  no  better,  it  even 
seems  to  make  you  worse.  Now  this  would  be  an  excellent  text  for 
showing  how  often  nations,  communities,  individuals,  refuse  to  be 
subdued  by  afflictions,  and  go  on  it  their  wickedness ;  and  there  is 


THE    TIXT INTERPRETATION.  75 

in  this  respect  a  pre  of  here  of  the  depravity  of  man.  But  the 
image,  the  whole  head  is  sick,  etc.,  is  clearly  not  at  all  designed  to 
set  forth  depravity,  but  severe  chastisement. 

Isa.  63  :  1-3,  ""Who  is  this  that  cometh  from  Edom,  with  bright- 
red  garments  from  Bozrah  ? I  that  speak  in  righteousness, 

mighty  to  save.    Wherefore  art  thou  red  in  thine  apparel? I 

have  trodden  the  wine -press  alone."  How  often  this  is  held  to 
denote  our  Saviour  as  shedding  his  blood,  and  suffering  alone,  for 
our  salvation.  And  yet  what  can  be  plainer  than  that  this  is  a  con- 
queror, stained  with  his  enemies'  blood,  and  fighting  alone?  In  the 
same  sentence  he  says,  "  For  I  will  tread  them  in  mine  anger,  and 
trample  them  in  my  fury  ;  and  their  blood  shall  be  sprinkled  upon 
my  garments."  (Comp.  also  ver.  4-6.)  Here  the  speaker  is  the 
conqueror  of  Edom,  and  deliverer  of  Israel.  If  understood  as 
applying  to  Messiah,  it  must  be  to  him  as  conquering  his  people's 
enemies,  and  mighty  to  save  in  this  sense.  In  Rev.  19  :  11-16,  the 
same  imagery  is  employed  in  describing  the  Word  of  God  ;  yet  there 
too  it  is  not  a  sufferer  but  a  conqueror. 

1  Kings  18  :  21,  "  How  long  halt  ye  between  two  opinions  ?  "  The 
favorite  use  of  this  text  is  to  reproach  men  with  indecision  and  hes- 
itation as  to  becoming  Christians.  But  the  Israelites  were  not  unde- 
cided as  to  whether  they  would  serve  Jehovah  or  Baal,  they  Were 
trying  to  serve  both,  to  conform  to  the  fashionable  court-religion, 
and  yet  retain  the  religion  of  their  fathers.  Elijah  reproaches  them 
with  this  effort  to  do  both.  Serve  Jehovah,  or  else  Baal,  not  first 
one  and  then  the  other.  (Comp.  "Ye  cannot  serve  God  and 
Mammon".) 

3.  Improper  spiritualizing,  etc. 

Amos  6  :  1,  "Wo  to  them  that  are  at  ease  in  Zion."  Here  Zion 
is  the  Church,  those  at  ease  in  Zion  are  the  slothful,  worthless  mem- 
bers of  the  Church,  and  away  we  go.  But  the  prophet  adds,  "and 
trust  in  the  mountain  of  Samaria;"  what  is  the  "spiritual  sense" 
of  that?  The  chiefs  of  Judah  trusted  in  the  strong  fortifications 
of  Jerusalem,  and  those  of  the  northern  kingdom  in  Samaria,  and 
80  they  were  not  alarmed  by  the  prophetic  warnings  that  enemies 
would  come  and  destroy  those  capitals,  as  other  great  cities  had 
been  destroyed.  Wo  to  them,  if  quietly  confiding  in  Jerusalem  and 
Samaria,  they  did  not  repent  of  their  wickedness,  and  trust  in  God. 
The  application  of  this  in  time  of  war  is  manifest  and  important. 
The  principle  might  also  be  applied  to  any  reliance  upon  human 
instrumentalities,  or  outward  agenc'es,  instead  of  relying  on  God. 


76  THE    TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION. 

The  do-nothing  members  of  a  church  deserve  severe  s<30urging,  but 
this  text  does  not  touch  them. 

Exod.  2  :  9,  "Take  this  child  away,  and  nurse  it  for  me,  and  I 
will  give  thee  thy  visages."  And  some  able  men  actually  make  this 
a  text  in  preaching  to  parents,  or  to  Sunday  School  teachers.  "  God 
says  to  you,  Take  this  child,"  etc.  But  he  says  no  such  thing.  He 
simply  tells  us  that  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh  said  this  to  the  mother 
of  Moses.  God  does  not  address  these  words  to  anybody.  To  find 
here  a  spiritual  meaning,  is  so  wholly  unwarranted,  so  utterly  arbi- 
trary, as  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  argument.  If  the  preacher 
says  that  he  takes  the  words  in  the  sense  proposed,  then  they  are  not 
Scripture  at  all, —  not  God's  saying,  but  his  saying,  — and  ought  not 
to  be  called  a  text,  for  that  means  Scripture.  It  would  be  just  as 
appropriate  to  take  Prov.  23  ;  30,  "Tarry  long  at  the  wine,"  as  a 
Divine  precept,  or  Psa.  14  :  1,  "There  is  no  God,"  as  a  declaration 
of  Scripture.  Whether  as  allegorizing  or  as  "  accommodation," 
such  an  application  of  the  text  is  indefensible,  and  when  once  a 
man's  attention  has  been  called  to  the  matter,  it  would  be  inexcus- 
able. 

Jonah  1:6,  "What  meanest  thou,  0  sleeper?"  How  can  a 
preacher  tell  us  that  these  words  refer  to  sinners  as  spiritually 
asleep  ?  Jonah,  worn  out  with  his  kisty  and  anxious  journey  to 
Joppa,  and  now  safe  aboard,  was  soundly  sleeping;  and  the  ship- 
captain,  alarmed  and  impatient,  shouts  at  him,  "What  are  you 
about,  fast  asleep?  arise,  call  upon  thy  God,"  as  all  the  rest  are 
doing.  A  minister  can  utter  these  words  to  sleeping  sinners,  but 
he  may  not  say  that  God  addresses  this  question  to  them,  or  to  any 
one.  God's  Word  simply  narrates  the  fact  that  the  ship-captain 
thus  spoke ;  he  does  not  himself  speak  the  words  at  all.  As  merely 
the  minister's  words,  they  would  not  be  a  part  of  Scripture.  As 
to  any  properly  allegorical  meaning  hidden  in  the  words,  it  is  a 
sheer  figment,  and  must  be  proven,  not  recklessly  assumed. 

Prov.  18:24,  "There  is  a  friend  that  sticketh  closer  than  a 
brother."  It  is  commonly  held  that  in  the  8th  chapter  of  Proverbs 
there  is  some  allusion  to  Christ  —  which  is  not  at  all  certain  —  and 
hence  any  passage  in  Proverbs  at  will  is  taken  as  referring  to 
Christ.  But  at  chap.  10  there  begins  a  manifestly  distinct  collec- 
tion, containing  a  number  of  detached  proverbs,  exceedingly  in- 
structive and  useful  for  our  practical  guidance  in  life,  but  having 
not  the  slightest  appearance  of  a  mystical  character.  The  proverbs 
which  here  imme  iiately  precede  and  follow,  and  the  other  half  of 


THE    TEXT  —  INTERPKETATION.  77 

this  proverb,  are  about  common  matters.  Vc/.  21,  power  of  the 
tongue ;  ver.  22,  blessing  of  finding  a  wife :  ver.  23,  the  poor 
entreats,  the  rich  answers  roughly ;  and  as  to  the  succeeding  pro- 
verbs, ver.  1  (next  chapter),  the  poor  who  walks  in  his  integrity, 
and  the  perverse  fool,  etc.,  etc.  Ver.  24  is  rendered,  "A  man  that 
hath  friends  must  show  himself  friendly:  and  there  is  a  friend  that 
sticketh  closer  than  a  brother."  The  first  half  is  in  the  Hebrew 
obscure,  but  most  probably  means  'a  man  of  [many]  associates 
will  ruin  himself,'  by  misplaced  confidence,  or  '  will  prove  bad,' 
cannot  be  faithful  to  them  all.  However  that  may  be,  the  general 
subject  is  plainly  the  common  friendships  of  life ;  and  there  is  no 
hint  of  allusion  to  Christ.  And  then  it  is  added  that  there  are 
some  close  and  permanent  friendships,  there  is  a  friend  (literally, 
'lover  ')  that  sticketh  closer  than  a  brother  ;  not  referring  to  any 
particular  individual,  but  meaning  that  such  a  thing  does  exist. 
We  need  not  condemn  the  poet's  use  of  this  expression, 

"  One  there  is  above  all  others 

Well  deserves  the  name  of  friend  : 
His  is  love  beyond  a  brother's,"  etc. ; 

but  the  license  of  poetical  adaptation  is  a  very  different  thing  from 
interpretation.  One  might  take  this  prov«irb  as  a  text,  and  speak 
of  the  friendships  that  are  close  and  faithful,  and  then  pass  by 
analogy,  on  his  own  responsibility,  to  speak^  of  Christ  as  a  friend ; 
but  that  is  not  saying  that  this  passage  refers  to  Christ. 

It  has  seemed  necessary  to  discuss  the  above  passages  with  some 
care,  because  the  inexperienced  reader  might  naturally  be#low  to 
believe  that  so  many  favorite  texts  have  been  utterly  misunderstood, 
by  himself  jyid  by  many  preachers  around  him.  The  particular 
interpretations  here  given  may  be  rejected,  if  thorough  examina- 
tion shows  them  to  be  incorrect.  What  is  particularly  urged  is  to 
form  the  habit  of  carefully  studying  every  text,  even  the  most 
familiar  and  apparently  obvious,  to  see  if  it  really  does  mean  what 
the  preacher  has  hitherto  supposed.  This  practice  will  rob  him 
of  many  texts,  but  will  enrich  him  with  many  others.  Most  of 
those  above  considered,  when  the  common  application  has  been 
set  aside,  are  found  to  have  a  sense  that  may  be  made  interesting 
and  useful.  And  by  careful  examination  many  another  passagej 
will  develop  unsuspected  riches.  If  strict  interpretation  of  texts 
brought  unmitigated  loss  of  material,  we  ought  still  to  practise 
it,  for  the  sake  of  dealing  honestly  with  cur  own  minds,  and  with 
7* 


78  THE    TEXT IXTERPKETATION". 

God's  Word  ;  but  the  habit  of  strict  interpretation  will  give  far 
more  than  it  takes  away.  If  one  knows  the  Hebrew  or  the  Greek, 
let  him  never  preach  upon  a  text  without  carefully  studying  it  and 
its  context  in  the  original.  Otherwise,  let  him  search  the  best 
translations,  and  good  explanatory  Notes,  determined  that  he  will 
never  say  a  passage  of  God's  holy  and  precious  Word  means  so  and 
BO,  without  personal,  honest,  patient  effort  to  ascertain  the  fact. 

§4.   BRIEF  RULES  FOR  INTERPRETING  A  TEXT. 

Though  we  have  discussed  at  length  the  chief  sources  of 
error  in  the  interpretation  of  texts,  and  illustrated  them 
by  many  examples,  it  seems  best  to  give,  positively,  some 
account  of  the  principles  upon  which  one  must  proceed  if 
he  would  interpret  correctly.  Good  treatises  on  Interpreta- 
tion are  accessible,*  and  it  is  sufficient  here  to  give  several 
brief  rules. 

1.  Interpret  grammatically.  Endeavor  to  ascertain  the 
precise  meaning  of  the  words  and  phrases  used  in  the  text. 
Inquire  whether  any  of  them  have  a  peculiar  sense  in  Scrip- 
ture, and  whether  such  peculiar  sense  holds  in  this  passage. 
If  there  are  key-words  in  the  text,  or  words  of  special  im- 
portance, examine,  by  the  help  of  a  Concordance,  other 
passages  in  which  such  word  is  employed.  This  is  best 
done  in  the  original,  because  our  version  will  often  have 
the  same  word  where  the  Hebrew  or  Greek  is  different,  and 
the  same  Greek  or  Hebrew  word  will  be  used  iif  important 
passages  where  our  version  renders  differently.  There  are 
admirable  Concordances  of  the  Hebrew  and  the  Greek,  and 
where  these  are  not  in- possession,  the  Lexicons  of  those 
languages  will  give  many  references,  frequently  all.  In 
cases  of  special  importance,  able  men  not  acquainted  with 

*  Such  as  Fairbairn's  Hermeneutical  Manual  (for  the  New  Testa- 
ment), Davidson's  Biblical  Hermeneutios  (particularly  full  on  the 
History  of  Interpretation),  Angus'  Bible  Hand-Book,  Barrows' 
Companion  to  the  Bible  (new,  cheap,  and  on  this  subject  quite 
good),  Home's  Introduction. 


THE    TEXT INTEEPRETATION.  79 

the  originals  have  found  it  useful  to  employ  the  English- 
man's Greek  Concordance  of  the  N.  T.,  and  the  English- 
man's Hebrew  Concordance  of  the  O.  T.  In  the  New 
Test.,  the  Index  to  Winer's  Grammar  will  show  whether  he 
has  explained  any  grammatical  constructions  in  the  text. 
The  best  translations  into  our  own  or  other  languages  will 
often  throw  light  on  the  text,  or  raise  questions  as  to  its 
meaning  which  we  may  find  it  useful  to  pursue.  Familiar 
passages  often  assume  great  freshness,  and  suggest  new 
trains  of  thought,  when  looked  at  in  a  new  English  Ver- 
sion,* or  a  translation  into  Latin,  French,  German,  etc. 
Even  those  who  can  use  the  original  languages  find  this 
true,  because  one  is  so  apt  when  looking  at  the  Hebrew  or 
Greek  to  be  really  looking  through  it  at  the  familiar  Eng- 
lish version,  as  if  written  underneath.  And  then  by  all 
means  examine  the  best  accessible  Commentaries,  not  such 
as  remark  upon  the  text,  and  enlarge  upon  its  teachings, 
but  such  as  carefully  explain  the  exact  meaning. 

This  grammatica^l  study  of  the  text  can  scarcely  be  made 
too  minute  or  protracted.  WJiately  used  to  say,  "Before 
writing  your  sermon,  look  at  your  text  with  a  microscope,"f 
and  Shedd  justly  remarks  :  "  Every  particle  of  care  in  first 
obtaining  an  excellent  text  and  then  getting  at,  and  get- 
ting out,  its  real  meaning  and  scope,  goes  to  render  the 
actual  construction  and  composition  of  the  sermon,  more 
easy  and  successful.  Labor  at  this  point  saves  labor  at  all 
after  points."  J 

2.  Interpret  logically.  »  The  connection  of  thought  in 

*  The  Revised  New  Test,  of  the  Amer.  Bible  Union,  though  it  has 
a  few  serious  blemishes,  is  in  the  main  very  correct,  fairly  represent- 
ing the  best  scholarship  of  the  day,  and  though  it  be  not  recom- 
0  mended  as  a  popular  version,  is  certainly  a  valuable  help  for  the 
interpretation  of  texts. 

f  Life  and  Remains  of  Whately,  p.  402. 

%  ShedO,  Horn.  p.  176. 


so  THE    TEXT  —  IXTERPRETATIOX. 

which  a  text  stands  will  of  course  throw  light  upon  its  mean- 
ing, and  is  usually  indispensable  to  understanding  it.  This 
logical  connection  will  sometimes  really  be  the  entire  book 
to  which  the  text  belongs.  There  are  very  few  sentences 
in  Hebrews,  or  in  the  nrst  eleven  chapters  of  Romans,  which 
can  be  fully  understood  without  having  in  mind  the  entire 
argument  of  the  Epistle.  Of  course  this  is  not  so  strik- 
inglv  true  in  most  of  the  books,  but  each  of  them  has  its 
own  distinctive  contents,  connection  and  character.  Few 
things  are  to  be  so  earnestly  urged  upon  the  student  of 
Scripture,  as  that  he  shall  habitually  study  its  books  with 
reference  to  their  whole  connection."^  Then  he  can  minutely 
examine  any  particular  text  with  a  correct  knowledge  of 
its  general  position  and  surroundings.  But  in  a  narrower 
sense  there  is  a  context,  which  will  embrace  from  a  few 
verses  to  a  few  chapters,  before  and  after  the  text,  and  of 
which  the  preacher  should  not  only  have  a  general  knowl- 
edge, but  should  make  special  examination,  when  examin- 
ing his  text  ;  and  we  must  resist  the  common  tendency  to 
imagine  that  this  context  begins  or  ends  with  the  chapter 
in  which  the  text  stands.  The  extent  to  which  such  study 
of  the  context  should  be  carried,  will  of  course  be  very 
different  in  different  cases ;  but  there  are  scarcely  any  texts 
with  reference  to  which  it  can  with  propriety  be  entirely 
neglected.  Wlierever  it  is  practicable,  the  context,  as  well 
as  the  text,  should  by  all  means  be  read  in  the  original 
languages,  or  with  such  other  helps  as  are  recommended 
under  the  foregoing  rule.  In  a  great  number  of  cases  there 
is  an  interesting  verbal  connection  between  the  text  and 
some  sentence  a  little  before  or  after  it,  which  is  obscured 
by  the  necessary  conditions  of  translation,  or  by  the  ex- 
treme fondness  of  our  English  Version  for  varying  the 
translation  where  the  original  has  the  same  word.  It 
should  be  remarked  that  besides  the  importance  of  study- 
*  Compare  on  Esposiiory  Preaching.  Pan  II.  chap.  3. 


THE     TEXT I  NT  ERP  RET  AT  ION.  81 

ing  the  logical  connection  in  order  to  a  thorough  under- 
standing of  the  text,  an  exposition  of  the  context  often 
forms  a  good,  and  sometimes  a  necessary.  Introduction  to 
the  sermon. 

3.  Interpret  historicallv.  Apart  from  the  logical  con- 
nection of  discourse  in  which  a  text  is  found,  there  is  often 
important  aid  to  be  derived  from  general  historical  knowl- 
edge. In  the  narratives,  which  make  up  the  larger  pan 
of  Scripture,  ^ve  have  constant  need  of  observing  facts 
of  Geography,  which  would  throw  light  on  the  text.  Sd 
as  to  the  Planners  and  Customs  of  the  Jews,  and  other 
nations  who  appear  in  the  sacred  story.  Thus  much  is 
obvious,  though  these  helps  for  understanding  texts  are 
seldom  used  as  diligently  as  they  should  be.  But  there  is 
also  much  to  be  learned  by  taking  account  of  the  opinions 
and  state  of  mind  of  the  persons  addressed  in  a  text.  We 
need  to  remember  the  relations  between  the  speaker  or 
writer  and  those  whom  he  has  specially  in  view.  In  order 
to  thisj  we  must  not  merely  know  the  previous  relations  of 
the  parties,  as  in  the  case  of  Paul's  Epistles,  but  must 
endeavor  to  ascertain  what  errors  or  evils  existed  among 
them  which  the  inspired  teacher  is  here  aiming  to  correct. 
This  can  often  be  gathered  from  the  book  itself,  ^s'o 
trouble  need  ever  have  been  felt  as  to  the  supposed  contra- 
diction between  Paul  and  James  with  regard  to  justifica-/ 
tion,  if  attention  had  been  paid  to  the  theoretical  and! 
practical  errors  at  which  they  are  respectively  aiming.  Inl 
the  case  of  our  Lord's  teachings,  much  may  be  learned 
from  the  Gospels,  and  also  from  the  Jewish  writings,  and 
the  modem  works  founded  on  them,  concerning  the  wrong 
notions  and  evil  practices  existing  among  the  Jews,  and 
to  which  his  sayings  have  often  a  very  direc:  and  specific 
reference.  With  respect,  for  example,  to  divorce,  to  oaths, 
to  the  Sabbath,  or  to  the  duty  of  paying  tribute,  his 
teachings  will    be    imperfectly   apprehended    unless    we 


82  THE    TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION. 

understand  the  practical  abuses  and  vehement  controversies 
which  existed  among  his  hearers  as  to  those  subjects.  On 
such  points  the  best  Commentaries  give  some  information. 
Or,  to  take  a  different  kind  of  example,  the  words  "  No 
man  can  come  to  me,  except  the  Father  which  hath  sent 
me  draw  him  "  (John  6  :  44),  were  not  spoken  as  a  mere 
general,  didactic  utterance,  much  less  were  they  addressed 
to  humble  and  anxious  inquirers,  but  were  aimed  at  an 
utterly  unspiritual  rabble,  who  were  following  him  not 
from  any  elevated  motives,  but  from  mere  fanatical  excite- 
ment, and  in  the  hope  of  continuing  to  be  fed  without 
working  for  it  —  who  called  themselves  his  disciples,  and 
talked  about  forcing  him  to  set  up  for  king.  The  recol- 
lection of  all  this  does  not  weaken  the  force  of  what  he 
said,  but  it  helps  us  to  appreciate  his  specific  aim  at  the 
moment,  and  gives  us  an  important  example  as  to  the 
adaptation  of  doctrine.  The  more  one  attends  to  the 
subject  the  more  he  is  likely  to  become  convinced,  that 
almost  everything  in  the  New  Testament,  as  well  as  much 
in  the  Old,  is  really  controversial  in  its  specific  design, 
and  that  we  must  constantly  inquire  what  errors  or  evil 
practices  are  aimed  at,  in  order  to  appreciate  the  precise 
bearing  given,  in  any  text,  to  the  principles  it  may  contain, 
and  the  modifications  of  statement  which  may  be  necessary 
(mutatis  mutandis)  in  turning  these  principles  towar.is 
new  applications. 

4.  Interpret  figuratively,  where  there  is  sufficient  reason. 
Wherever  it  is  clear,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  from  the 
connection,  or  from  precisely  similar  expressions  in  other 
passages,  that  the  literal  sense  is  not  designed,  then  we 
must  understand  figuratively.  In  the  language  of  Scrip- 
ture, as  in  all  other  language,  the  presumption  is  in  favor 
of  the  literal  sense.  To  explain  away  as  figurative  what- 
ever seems  to  conflict  with  doctrinal  prejudices,  or  with 
fanciful   notions    and    morbid    feelings   as   to   ethics   or 


THE    TEXT INTERPRETATION.  83 

testhetics,  or  with  hasty  inferences  from  imperfectly  estab- 
lished scientific  facts,  is  to  trifle  with  that  which  we 
acknowledge  as  an  authoritative  revelation.  Still,  there 
is  very  much  in  Scripture  that  is  clearly  figurative ;  and 
very  much  more  which  might  so  readily  be  thus  under- 
stood, in  the  light  of  other  Scripture  usage,  that  we  ought 
to  be  careful  about  building  important  theories  upon  its 
literal  sense.  This  is  especially  true  as  regards  pro- 
phecies of  things  yet  to  come,  in  which  it  is  of  necessity 
quite  difficult  to  distinguish  beforehand  between  literal  and 
figurative,  though  the  fulfilment  will  some  day  make  it 
plain.  And  remember  that  language  may  be  highly 
figurative  without  being  fictitious.  Only  ascertain  what 
the  figures  of  Scripture  were  designed  to  mean,  and  that 
meaning  is  as  certainly  true  as  if  stated  in  plain  words. 
Thus  the  "  fire  that  cannot  be  quenched  "  may  be  called  a 
figure,  if  you  choose ;  yet  it  assuredly  means  that  in  hell 
there  will  be  something  as  bad  as  fire,  something  as  tortur- 
ing as  fire  is  to  the  earthly  body — nay,  the  reality  of  hell, 
as  well  as  of  heaven,  does  no  doubt  greatly  transcend  the 
most  impressive  imagery  that  earthly  things  can  afford.* 

5.  Interpret  allegorically,  where  that  is  clearly  proper. 
We  cannot  take  it  for  granted  that  any  passage  has  an 
allegorical,  or  so-called  "  spiritual  "  sense,  merely  because 
the  notion  suits  our  fancy,  or  would  promote  our  conve- 
nience. There  must  be  good  reason  to  think  so.  What- 
ever the  New  Testament  so  uses,  is  certainly  allegorical ; 
whatever  else  is  precisely  similar  to  matters  so  used  in  the 
New  Testament,  is  very  probably  allegorical.  Farther 
than  this,  we  have  surely  no  right  to  go.  We  may  derive 
illustration,  our  own  illustration,  of  spiritual  things  from 
perhaps  everything  in  Scripture  history,  prophecies  and 
proverbs,  as  we  may  from  profane  history  and  from  nature ; 

*  Comp.  Barrows,  Companion  to  the  Bible,  chap.  35  ;  Lord.  Lawl 
of  Figurative  Language. 


84  THE    TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION. 

but  we  have  no  more  right  to  present  the  former  as  inter- 
pretation, than  the  latter.  Joseph  furnishes  a  good  illus- 
tration, in  certain  respects,  of  Christ;  and  so  does  the 
Athenian,  who  held  up  his  mutilated  arm  before  the 
people  to  plead  for  his  brother.  Why  then,  merely  because 
Iwe  can  draw  illustration  from  the  case  of  Joseph,  shall  we 
call  him  a  "  type  "  of  Christ  ?  Moreover,  l)ecause  some 
things  in  the  Levitical  rites,  the  history  of  Joshua,  David 
or  Cyrus,  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  or  the  book  of  Isaiah, 
have  in  addition  to  their  natural  sense,  an  allegorical  ref- 
erence to  Christ,  it  does  not  follow  that  everything  com- 
prised therein  has  such  a  reference.  As  to  the  whole  sub- 
ject, we  must  avoid  extremes ;  and  it  would  seem  to  be  a 
jjood  rule  as  to  preaching,  that  while  probable  allegorical 
meanings  may  be  adduced,  as  probable,  in  the  progress  of 
a  discourse,  no  allegorical  meaning  shall  be  taken  as  a  text, 
which  does  not  result  from  an  interpretation  having  clear 
warrant  in  Scripture  usage.  And  two  things  deserve  to 
be  carefully  borne  in  mind.  The  rage  for  "  spiritualizing  " 
causes  many  to  overlook,  or  practically  neglect,  the  exceed- 
ingly varied  and  valuable  lessons  as  to  Divine  Providence 
and  human  duty  which  are  afforded  by  passages  in  their 
natural  sense.  Those  who  insist  on  making  Joseph  a  type 
of  Christ,  are  apt  never  to  hold  up  before  their  hearers  his 
interesting  and  impressive  example,  of  steadfast  faith  in 
God  amid  crushing  adversity  and  sudden  prosperity,  of 
resistance  to  powerful  temptation  because  yielding  would 
be  to  "  sin  against  God,"  of  wise  affection  in  dealing  with 
his  kindred,  and  the  like.  So  in  a  thousand  instances, 
and  there  is  here  one  way  in  which  compensation  may  be 
found  for  the  loss  arising  from  the  abandonment  of  wild 
spiritualizing.  The  other  consideration  is,  that  many  pas- 
sages which  can  be  interpreted  only,  so  far  as  we  have 
warrant  to  go,  in  a  natural  sense,  may  yield  copious  instruc- 
tion as  to  properly  spiritual  things,  in  that  the  principle 


THE    TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION.  85 

they  contaiD,  or  the  analogy  they  present,  may  be  by  us 
applied  or  extended  to  something  spiritual  —  this  being 
done  on  our  own  responsibility,  yet  sustained  by  manifest 
propriety,  and  by  other  passages. 

6.  Interpret  in  accordance  with,  and  not  contrary  to, 
the  general  teachings  of  Scripture.*  These  teachings  are 
harmonious,  and  can  be  combined  into  a  symmetrical 
whole.  If  a  passage  may  have  two  senses,  owing  to  the 
ambiguity  of  some  word  or  construction,  to  the  doubt 
whether  some  expression  is  figurative,  etc.,  then  we  must 
choose  one  which  accords  with  what  the  Bible  in  general 
plainly  teaches,  rather  than  one  which  would  make  the 
Bible  contradict  itself.  It  is  a  gross  abuse  of  this  prin- 
ciple —  though  one  often  practised  —  to  force  upon  a  pas- 
sage some  meaning  which  its  words  and  constructions  do 
not  grammatically  admit  of,  in  order  that  it  may  give  the 
sense  required  by  our  system.  But  between  possible  iTam- 
matical  meanings  we  are  compelled  to  choose  upon  some 
principle,  and  certainly  one  important  principle  to  be  con- 
sidered is  that  the  teachings  of  Scripture  must  be  con- 
sistent. Where  the  grammatical  probabilities  are  pretty 
evenly  balanced,  a  comparatively  slight  preference  in  the 
respect  mentioned  must  turn  the  scale  ;  and  even  a  much 
less  probable  sense  —  provided  it  be  grammatically  pos- 
sible, and  sustained  by  some  corresponding  usage  of  lan- 
guage—  may  be  preferred  to  a  more  probable  and  com- 
mon sense,  if  the  former  would  perfectly  accord,  and  the 
latter  would  grossly  conflict,  with  the  acknowledged  gen- 
eral teachings  of  Scripture.  In  order  to  apply  this  prin- 
ciple with  propriety  and  safety,  it  is  manifestly  necessary 
that  we  should  bring  to  bear  no  narrow^  and  hasty  views 

*  The  phrase,   "according  to  the   analogy  of   faith,"  commonly 
used  in  this  connection,  was  derived  from  a  misunderstanding  of 
the  Greek  in  Rom.  12  :  6,  and  ought  to  be  abandoned,  even  if  there 
be  no  technical  phrase  to  substitute. 
8 


86  THE    TEXT  —  INTERPRETATION. 

of  Scripture  teaching,  but  the  results  of  a  wide,  thoughtful, 
and  devout  study  of  Biblical  Theology. 

The  careful  examination  of  Scripture  "  references  "  in 
studying  a  text,  is  a  matter  of  great  importance.  These 
will  often  help  in  the  grammatical  part  of  interpretation, 
by  showing  how  the  same  words  and  phrases  are  elsewhere 
employed  ;  and  in  the  historical,  by  showing  how  the  same 
subject  was  presented  under  different  circumstances,  or 
what  was  the  peculiar  state  of  things  in  which  the  text 
was  uttered.  They  may  also  assist  us,  by  presenting  par- 
allel or  analogous  Scripture  usage,  in  determining  whether 
expressions  of  the  text  ought  to  be  taken  as  figurative,  or 
as  allegorical ;  and  there  are  cases  in  which  even  a  few 
other  passages  will  so  far  set  forth  the  general  teachings 
of  Scripture  on  the  subject  involved  in  the  text,  as  to  be 
of  service  in  choosing  among  the  possible  meanings  of  its 
language.  Moreover,  the  "  reference  "  passages  will  very 
often  furnish  useful  material  for  the  body  of  the  sermon, 
suggesting  to  us  new  aspects,  proofs,  illustrations  or  appli- 
cations of  the  subject  treated.  The  young  preacher  should 
make  it  a  fixed  rule  to  consult  the  references  to  his  text ; 
and  many  men  and  women  have  become  "mighty  in  the 
Scriptures,"  by  the  diligent  use  of  references  in  their  daily 
reading.* 

*  Moody's  New  Testament  is  quite  convenient,  as  it  prints  the 
reference  passages  in  full  on  the  same  page.  One  can  thus  readily 
note  those  which  strike  him  as  important,  and  then  hunt  them  up 
to  examine  their  connection.  Many  persons  become  discouraged 
in  the  use  of  references  by  the  fact  that  they  have  an  over-copious 
and  ill-chosen  collection.  The  Annotated  Paragraph  Bible  of  the 
London  Religious  Tract  Society  is  in  this  respect,  as  in  others,  an 
exceedingly  good  edition. 


SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED.  87 


CHAPTER    III. 

SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

§  1.  Doctrinal  Subjects.  ^  2.  Subjects  of  Morality,  ^  3.  His- 
torical Subjects.  §  4.  Experimental  Subjects.  §  5.  Occa- 
sional Sermons. 

WHETHER  the  subject  or  the  text  of  a  sermon  is 
first  chosen,  will  of  course  depend  upon  circum- 
stances. In  considering  the  condition  of  the  congrega- 
tion, or  looking  back  over  the  sermons  recently  preached, 
one  will  be  more  likely  to  decide  upon  a  subject,  for  which 
he  must  then  find  a  text.  In  reading  the  Bible,  or  run- 
ning over  his  growing  list  of  texts,  he  will  be  more  apt  to 
light  upon  some  text  which  interests  him,  and  from  which 
he  will  proceed  to  evolve  a  subject.  Each  of  these  plans 
ought  to  be  frequently  pursued ;  one  or  the  other  will  be 
more  frequently  adopted,  according  to  the  preacher's  turn 
of  mind.  It  has  been  thought  best  to  discuss  the  text  first, 
because  the  primary  conception  of  preaching  is  to  bring 
forth  the  teachings  of  some  passage  of  Scripture.  But 
the  points  to  be  insisted  on  are  these  :  when  the  subject  is 
first  selected,  then  carefully  look  for  a  text  which  will 
fairly,  and  if  possible  exactly,  present  that  subject ;  if  the 
text  comes  first,  then  seek  to  work  out  from  it  some  defi- 
nite subject — not  necessarily  expressed  in  a  single  propo- 
sition, but  really  one  subject.  Even  in  text-sermons  and 
expository  sermons,  as  we  shall  see  below,  it  is  important 
to  have  unity  of  subject.  The  subjects  treated  in  the 
pulpit  may  be  classified  into  doctrinal,  moral,  kititorical, 


88  SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

experimental,  and  occasional.*  Any  such  classification  is 
necessarily  imperfect,  as  the  classes  will  in  certain  cases 
overlap,  and  diiferent  persons  might  classify,  each  accord- 
ing to  a  different  basis.  But  the  habit  of  referring  every 
subject  to  a  class  will  be  found  useful,  as  contributing  to 
unity  and  consistency  of  treatment,  and  to  variety  of 
topics ;  and  the  discussion  of  these  classes  furnishes  occa- 
sion for  practical  suggestions,  upon  matters  of  no  little 
importance. 

§  1.      DOCTRINAL   SUBJECTS. 

The  phrase  "  doctrinal  sermon  "  is  constantly  used  by 
some  to  denote  feermons  on  points  of  denominational  pecu- 
liarity or  controversy.  Such  a  limitation,  implying  that 
these  are  the  only  doctrines,  or  that  we  cannot  discuss  doc- 
trine otherwise  than  polemically,  is  a  really  grave  error, 
and  should  be  carefully  avoided  and  corrected. 

Doctrine,  i.  e.  teaching,  is  the  preacher's  chief  business. 
Truth  is  the  life-blood  of  piety,  without  which  we  cannot 
maintain  its  vitality  or  support  its  activity.  And  to  teach 
men  truth,  or  to  quicken  what  they  already  know  into 
freshness  and  power,  is  the  preacher's  great  means  of 
doing  good.  The  facts  and  truths  which  belong  to  the 
Scripture  account  of  Sin,  Providence  and  Redemption, 
form  the  staple  of  all  Scriptural  preaching.  But  these 
truths  ought  not  simply  to  have  place,  after  a  desultory 
and  miscellaneous  fashion,  in  our  preaching.  The  entire 
body  of  Scripture  teaching  upon  any  particular  subject, 
when  collected  and  systematically  arranged,  has  come  to 
be  called  the  doctrine  of  Scripture  on  that  subject,  as  the 
doctrine  of  Sin,  of  Atonement,  of  Regeneration,  etc. ;  and 
in  this  sense  we  ought  to  preach  much  on  the  doctrines  of 
the  Bible.  We  all  regard  it  as  important  that  the  preacher 

*  Comp.  the  claBsifications  of  Vinet ,  p.  75 ;  Kidder,  p.  268. 


SUBJECTS CLASSIFIED.  89 

should  himself  have  sound  views  of  doctrine ;  is  it  not 
also  important  that  he  should  lead  his  congregation  to 
have  just  views  ?  In  our  restless  nation  and  agitated  times, 
in  these  days  of  somewhat  bustling  religious  activity,  there 
has  come  to  be  too  little  of  real  doctrinal  preaching.  "The 
day  was  when  churches  were  much  more  concerned  than 
we,  about  the  truths  conveyed,  and  much  less  about  the 
garb  of  the  truths.  Doctrine,  rather  than  speaking,  was 
what  drew  the  audience."  *  To  a  certain  extent  it  is  proper 
that  we  should  conform  to  the  tastes  of  the  age,  for  they 
frequently  indicate  its  real  wants,  and  always  affect  its 
reception  of  truth ;  but  when  those  tastes  are  manifestly 
faulty,  w^e  should  earnestly  endeavor  to  correct  them.  The 
preacher  who  can  make  doctrinal  truth  interesting  as  well 
as  intelligible  to  his  congregation,  and  gradually  bring 
them  to  a  good  acquaintance  with  the  doctrines  of  the 
Bible,  is  rendering  them  an  inestimable  service. 

And  let  us  preach  especially  on  the  great  doctrines. 
True,  they  are  familiar,  but  sermon^  upon  them  need  not 
be  commonplace.  The  sunlight  is  as  fresh  every  morning 
as  when  it  shone  upon  our  first  parents  in  their  Paradise ; 
young  love  is  still  as  sweet,  and  parental  grief  as  heart- 
rending, as  was  theirs.  And  so  the  great  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel,  to  him  who  has  eyes  to  sc3e  and  a  heart  to  feel 
them,  are  forever  new.  Our  task  is,  loving  these  truths 
ourselves,  to  make  others  love  them.  Many  a  preacher 
could  tell,  how  in  the  early  months  or  years  of  his  untu- 
tored ministry,  he  was  sometimes  driven,  from  sheer  lack 
of  a  novel  topic,  to  fall  back  upon  Repentance,  Regenera- 
tion, or  the  like,  and  make  what  he  felt  to  be  a  poor  ser- 
mon ;  and  how,  long  afterwards,  he  heard  of  fruit  from 
those  sermons  rather  than  from  others  which   he  at  the 

*  Alexander,  Thoughts  on  Preaching,  p.  50  ;  he  repeatedly  and 
earnestly  insists  on  doctrinal  preaching,  see  p.  10-12,  42-3,  51, 
234-6,  249-52 
8^ 


90  SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

time  considered  much  more  striking  and  impressive.*  Of 
course  one  should  not  make  a  hobby  of  a  particular  doc- 
trine, as  some  men  do  with  the  doctrine  of  Election,  or  of 
Baptism ;  and  some  others  with  Perfection,  the  Witness  of 
the  Spirit,  &c. 

While,  however,  we  ought  to  preach  much  upon  the 
great  doctrines,  it  is  not  often  advisable,  especially  for  a 
settled  pastor,  to  embrace  the  whole  of  such  a  doctrine  in 
a  single  sermon.  This  would  contain  the  mere  generali- 
ties of  the  subject,  and  be  very  difficult  to  the  hearer,  or, 
more  frequently,  quite  commonplace.  It  is  a  common 
delusion  of  inexperienced  speakers  or  writers,  to  think 
that  they  had  best  take  a  very  broad  subject,  so  as  to  be 
sure  of  finding  enough  to  say.  But  to  choose  some  one 
aspect  of  a  great  subject  is  usually  far  better,  as  there  is 
thus  much  better  opportunity  for  the  speaker  to  work  out 
something  fresh,  and  much  better  prospect  of  making  the 
hearers  take  a  lively  interest  in  the  subject  as  a  whole. 
Alexander,  writing  to  a  son  at  college,  says :  "  The  more 
special  the  subject,  the  more  you  will  find  to  say  on  it. 
Boys  think  just  the  reverse.  They  write  of  Virtue,  Honor, 
Liberty,  &c. ;  it  would  be  easier  to  write  on  the  pleasures 
of  Virtue,  the  Honor  of  Knighthood,  or  the  difierence 
between  true  knd  false  Liberty  —  which  are  more  special. 
Take  it  as  a  general  rule,  the  more  you  narrow  the  subject, 
the  more  thoughts  you  will  have.  And  for  this  there  is  a 
philosophical  reason,  which  I  wish  you  to  observe.  In 
acquiring  knowledge,  the  mind  proceeds  from  particulars 
to  generals.  Thus  Newton  proceeded  from  the  falling  of 
an  apple  to  the  general  principle  of  gravity.  A  great 
many  particular  observations  were  to  be  made  on  animals, 
before  a  naturalist  could  lay  down  the  general  law,  that  all 
creatures  with  cleft  hoofs  and  horns,  are  graminivorous 
This  process  is  called  generalization.     It  is  one  of 

*  Comp.  on  Familiar  Texts,  above,  chap.  1,  §  3. 


SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED.  91 

the  last  to  be  developed.  Hence  it  requires  vast  knowl- 
edge and  a  mature  mind  to  treat  a  general  subject,  such  aa 
Virtue,  or  Honor,  and  it  is  much  better  to  begin  with  par- 
ticular instances."  '^  And  this  applies  not  merely  to  the 
preacher's  power  of  treatment,  but  to  the  hearer's  power 
of  comprehension.  When  he  becomes  fully  able  to  dis- 
cuss large  subjects  in  a  single  discourse,  the  great  mass  of 
his  hearers  will  still  be  unable  to  follow  him,  unless  the 
discourse  be  so  long  as  to  include  copious  details.  And 
besides  all  this,  the  settled  pastor  cannot  often  afford  to 
consume  so  much  material  in  a  single  sermon.  The  excep- 
tional cases,  as  a  series  of  sermons  on  several  great  doc- 
trines, the  existence  of  special  interest  in  some  one  doc- 
trine, &c.,  will  of  course  be  treated  as  exceptions. 

The  specific  aspects  of  a  great  doctrine  may  sometimes 
be  chosen  according  to  the  natural  divisions  of  the  subject 
itself.  In  this  matter,  and  in  all  that  pertains  to  preach- 
ing upon  doctrinal  subjects,  we  must  carefully  bear  in 
mind  the  distinction  between  a  theological  treatise  or  lec- 
ture and  a  popular  sermon.  The  scientific  analysis  and 
elaborate  logic  of  the  one  is  seldom  appropriate  to  the 
other.  The  parts  of  a  subject  which  require  most  atten- 
tion, and  excite  most  interest,  on  the  part  of  a  systematic 
student,  may  be  least  suitable  to  preaching,  and  vice  versa. 
The  knowledge  presupposed  by  the  theological  teacher, 
cannot  usually  be  taken  for  granted  as  existing  in  a  con- 
gregation. Young  ministers  often  help  to  make  doctrinal 
subjects  unpopular,  by  the  fact  that  their  sermons  too 
closely  resemble  the  treatises  they  have  been  studying,  or 
the  lectures  they  have  heard.  We  must  assume  a  different 
point  of  view ;  must  consider  which  aspects  of  a  doctrine 
will  awaken  interest  in  the  popular  mind,  and  at  the  same 
time  help  to  give  just  views  of  the  whole.  Besides  the 
important  differences  between  the  merely  didactic  and  the 

*  Thoughts  on  Preaching,  p.  512. 


92  SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

oratorical  mode  of  treatment,  there  is  here  a  previous  dif- 
ference as  to  the  choice  of  subjects  and  parts  of  subjects 
to  be  treated. 

Or  instead  of  selecting  according  to  the  logical  divisions 
of  the  doctrine,  we  may  take  the  aspect  of  it  presented  by- 
some  one  text.  Thus  on  Repentance,  one  might  preach 
upon  its  nature,  its  results,  the  obligations  to  it,  etc.,  hunt- 
ing up  a  text  for  each ;  or,  he  might  begin  by  selecting 
among  the  texts  which  treat  of  repentance.  For  example, 
Mark  6 :  12,  "And  they  went  out  and  preached  that  men 
should  repent,"  would  suggest  a  general  view  of  repent- 
ance, or  an  inquiry  into  its  obligation.  Acts  5  :  31,  "  Him 
hath  God  exalted  a  Prince  and  a  Saviour,  to  give  repent- 
ance to  Israel,  and  forgiveness  of  sins,"  presents  repent- 
ance as  a  gift  of  Christ.     Acts  20  :  21,  "Testifying 

repentance  toward  God,  and  faith  toward  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,"  brings  up  the  relation  between  repentance  and 
faith ;  and  Matt.  3:11,  "I  indeed  baptize  you  with  water 
unto  repentance,"  that  between  repentance  and  baptism. 
Various  distinct  and  impressive  motives  to  repentance  are 
exhibited  by  Rom.  2:4,  "  The  goodness  of  God  leadeth 

thee  to   repentance  ;  "  Acts  3:16,  "  Repent that 

your  sins  may  be  blotted  out ;  "  Luke  13  :  3,  "Except  ye 
repent,  ye  shall  all  likewise  perish  ; "  Acts  17 :  30,  31, 
"God  ....  now  commandeth  all  men  everywhere  to  repent, 
because  he  hath  appointed  a  day  in  which  he  will  judge 
the  world  in  righteousness;"  Luke  15  :  10,  "  There  is  joy  in 
the  presence  of  the  angels  of  God  over  one  sinner  that 
repenteth."  And  Matt.  3  :  8,  "Bring  forth  therefore  fruits 
meet  for  repentance,"  would  lead  one  to  speak  of  the 
appropriate  effects  of  repentance.*  A  person  well  acquainted 
with  the  whole  doctrine  of  Repentance  could  treat  the 
view  presented  by  any  one  of  these  texts  as  a  part  of  the 
whole,  so  as  gradually  to  give  a  complete  knowledge  of 

*Comp.  Ripley,  Sac.  Rhet.  p.  32 


SUBJECTS CLASSIFIED.  93 

the  entire  subject,  Avhile  each  sermon  would  have  the  fresh- 
ness and  force  belonging  to  a  specific  topic. 

Besides  the  properly  doctrinal,  i.  e.  didactic,  there  are 
apologetical  and  polemical  subjects. 

Apologetics,^  that  is,  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,  and 
its  defence  against  assailants,  is  a  class  of  subjects  not  often 
requiring,  in  our  ordinary  preaching,  to  be  formally  treated. 

"  We  suspect  that  this  great  cause  has  been  not  a  little  injured 
by  the  injudicious  conduct  of  a  certain  class  of  preachers  and 
writers,  who,  in  just  despair  of  being  able  to  handle  a  single  topic 
of  religion  to  advantage,  for  want  of  having  paid  a  devout  attention 
to  the  Scriptures,  fly  like  harpies  to  the  evidences  of  Christianity, 
on  which  they  are  certain  of  meeting  with  something  prepared  to 
their  hands,  which   they  can  tear,  and   soil,  and  mangle   at  their 

pleasure The  folly  we  are  adverting  to  did  not  escape  the 

observation  nor  the  ridicule  of  Swift,  who  remarked  in  his  days 
that  the  practice  of  mooting  on  every  occasion  the  question  of  the 
origin  of  Christianity  was  much  more  likely  to  unsettle  the  faith 
of  the  simple  than  to  counteract  the  progress  of  infidelity.  It  is 
dangerous  to  familiarize  every  promiscuous  audience  to  look  upon 
religion  as  a  thing  which  yet  remains  to  be  proved,  to  acquaint 
them  with  every  sophism  and  cavil  which  a  perverse  and  petulant 
ingenuity  has  found  out,  unaccompanied,  as  is  too  often  the  case, 
with  a  satisfactory  answer;  thus  leaving  the  poison  to  operate, 
without  the  antidote,  in  minds  which  ought  to  be  strongly  imbued 
with  the  principles  and  awed  by  the  sanctions  of  the  gospel.  It  is 
degrading  to  the  dignity  of  a  revelation  established  through  a 
succession  of  ages  by  indubitable  proofs,  to  be  adverting  every 
moment  to  the  hypothesis  of  its  being  an  imposture,  and  to  be 
inviting  every  insolent  sophist  to  wrangle  with  us  about  the  title, 
when  we  should  be  cultivating  the  possession.  The  practice  we 
are  now  censuring  is  productive  of  another  inconvenience.  The 
argument  of  the  truth  of  Christianity  being  an  argument  of  accu- 
mulation, or,  in  other  words,  of  that  nature  that  the  force  of  it 
results  less  from  any  separate  consideration  than  from  an  almost 
infinite  variety  of  circumstances,  conspiring  towards  one  point  and 

*  The  word  '  apology '  originally  signified  a  defence,  without  any 
acknowledgment  of  wrong. 


94  SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

terminating  in  one  conclusion;  this  concentration  of  evidence  is 
broken  to  pieces  when  an  attempt  is  made  to  present  it  in  super- 
ficial descants  ;  than  which  nothing  can  be  conceived  better  calcu- 
lated to  make  what  is  great  appear  little,  and  what  is  ponderous, 
light."  * 

But  informally,  incidentally,  we  may  all  make  very  fre- 
quent and  profitable  use  of  Christian  Evidences.  Without 
at  all  treating  the  question  of  the  truth  of  Christianity  as 
an  open  one,  and  without  undertaking  any  full  and  regular 
discussion  of  its  claims,  or  refutation  of  objections  to  it,  we 
may  introduce  into  ordinary  sermons  some  subordinate 
division,  or  passing  remark,  that  will  vividly  exhibit  one 
of  the  evidences,  or  strikingly  refute  some  particular 
objection.  This  course  meets  any  rising  doubts  in  one 
mind  or  another,  and  precisely  suits  the  mental  wants  and 
habits  of  most  men,  and  is  thus  the  fairest  way  of  bringing 
the  subject  before  them.  Even  if  one  sees  cause  for  an 
expressly  apologetical  sermon  or  series  of  sermons,  he  had 
better  select  some  part  of  the  great  subject,  and  barely 
allude  to,  or  rapidly  touch,  the  others.  Whatever  matters 
are  distinctly  brought  forward,  ought  to  be  thoroughly 
discussed.  Let  us  beware  how  we  merely  mention  some 
striking  form  of  error,  or  plausible  objection  to  truth, 
without  meeting  it  very  squarely,  if  not  at  all  points. 
Every  one  has  observed,  what  Mr.  Hall  intimates,  that  the 
error  often  remains  in  the  mind,  while  the  imperfect  refuta- 
tion is  forgotten ;  and  the  reason  for  this  is  not  far  to  seek. 
Errors  often  find  their  chief  power  in  the  fact  that  they 
consist  of  truth  torn  away  from  its  connection,  and  held  up 
in  an  excessive  prominence,  or  without  the  limitation  and 
modification  which  would  be  given  by  its  related  truths. 
A  fragment  of  truth  thus  held  up  may  make  its  delusive 
impression  in  a  single  moment.  The  apologist  must  care- 
fully replace  the   truth,    and   bring   the   hearers  to  look 

*  Robert  Hall,  Review  of  Gregory's  Evidences,  Works,  II,  p.  299, 


SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED.  95 

closely  at  all  the  surrounding  truths,  and  consider  their 
relation  to  that  which  has  been  dislocated.  But  this  is 
often  a  work  of  time,  requiring  wider  knowledge  than 
the  audience  possess  or  he  can  readily  impart,  and  more 
reflection  than  the  lieedless  many  are  willing  to  bestow. 
It  is  ui^fair  to  the  truth  if  we  neglect  this  fact,  and  expect 
a  brief  statement  of  some  novel  and  seductive  error  to  be 
sufficiently  met  by  an  equally  brief  reply. 

The  internal,  and  experimental  evidences  may  be  very  i 
readily  preached  upon  with  advantage.  The  beautifulj 
harmony  of  the  sacred  books,  with  all  their  rich  diversity, 
the  effects  of  Christianity  upon  civilization,  the  adaptation 
of  the  gospel  to  the  wants  of  an  awakened  conscience, 
the  believer's  testimony  on  the  ground  of  experience,  the 
blessed  results  of  piety,  and  the  powerful  example  of  the 
truly  pious,  are  topics  which  may  be  widely  and  freely 
used. 

Polemics,  or  controversy  with  other  professed  Christians, 
presents  subjects  which  demand  faithful  and  careful  hand- 
ling. The  spurious  charity,  now  so  much  talked  of,  which 
requires  that  we  shall  not  assail  error  in  our  fellow-Chris- 
tians, the  indifference  to  truth  so  widely  prevailing,  which 
prates  of  the  ''good  in  everything,"  and  urges  that  a  man's 
belief  is  of  little  importance  if  he  is  intellectual,  or  amia- 
ble, or  moral  and  devout,  these  make  some  men  unwilling 
to  preach  upon  polemical  topics,  especially  to  discuss  the 
errors  of  other  evangelical  denominations.  The  natural 
love  of  conflict,  which  even  in  preachers  is  sometimes  so 
strong,  the  lively  interest  which  the  ungodly  will  take  in  a 
fight  among  Christians,  the  hearty  support  and  laudation 
which  a  man's  own  party  will  give  him,  often  precisely  in 
proportion  as  he  flatters  their  self-conceit  and  bitterly 
assails  their  opponents, —  such  causes  as  these  contribute 
to  make  another  class  of  men  excessively  fond  of  contro- 
versy.    And  then  the  two   classes  really  stimulate  and 


96  SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

encourage  each  other.  The  former  being  greatly  disgusted 
at  what  they  reckon  bad  taste  and  a  wrong  spirit,  are  thus 
all  the  more  disposed  to  shrink  from  such  topics ;  and  the 
latter,  being  fired  by  what  appears  to  them  cowardice  or 
worldly  policy,  are  all  the  more  bitter  against  the  common 
foe,  and  inclined  to  assail  their  friends  to  boot.  In  this 
way  two  tendencies  often  arise  in  a  denomination,  each 
toward  a  very  hurtful  extreme.  Is  there  not  a  golden 
mean?  It  would  seem  to  be  a  just  principle,  that  a 
preacher  should  never  go  out  of  his  way  to  find  controver- 
sial matter,  nor  go  out  of  his  way  to  avoid  it.  He  who 
continually  shrinks  from  conflict  should  stir  himself  up  to 
faithfulness ;  he  who  is  by  nature  belligerent,  should  culti- 
vate forbearance  and  courtesy.  When  the  text  or  topic 
naturally  leads  us  to  remark  upon  some  matter  of  contro- 
versy, we  should  not,  save  in  exceptional  cases,  avoid  it, 
because  esteemed  Christians  are  present  who  differ  with  us 
on  that  point.  We  should  of  course  be  mainly  occupied 
with  the  advocacy  of  positive  truth ;  but  the  idea  that  a 
man  can  always  "talk  about  what  he  himself  believes,  and 
let  other  people's  opinions  alone,"  is  impracticable,  if  it 
were  not  improper.  In  many  cases  we  cannot  clearly 
define  truth,  save  by  contrasting  it  with  error.  And  since 
errors  held  and  taught  by  good  men  are  only  the  more 
likely  to  be  hurtful  to  others,  we  are  surely  not  less  bound 
to  refute  them  in  such  cases  than  when  advocated  by  bad 
men.  Paul  employs  terms  of  terrible  severity,  as  his  Mas- 
ter had  done,  in  speaking  of  some  who  taught  utterly 
ruinous  error  and  from  bad  motives.*  Paul  also  withstood 
to  the  face,  before  all  the  brethren,  his  beloved  but  now 
erring  fellow -apostle,  using  against  him  hard  arguments, 
but  soft  words,  f     Afterwards,  in  speaking  of  the  matter, 

*  Phil.  3:2;   Gul.  G  :  12 ;  1  Tim.  4  :  1,  2  ;  2  Tim.  4  :  14.     Comp. 
Matt.  23  :  33  ;  3  John,  10. 
t  Gal.  2  :  11-21 


SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED.  97 

he  charges  Peter  with  dissimulation,  a  charge  justifiable 
because  he  knew  with  certainty  that  it  was  true.  We,  who 
are  so  liable  to  err  in  judging,  ought  to  be  very  slow  to 
impugn  the  motives  of  those  whom  we  believe  to  be  lovers 
of  Jesus.  No  doubt  Satan  rejoices,  as  we  know  that  wicked 
men  do,  to  see  Christians  adding  abuse  to  argument. 
While  faithfully  and  earnestly  opposing  error,  even  as 
held  by  Christian  brethren,  let  us  avoid  needlessly  wound- 
ing the  cause  of  our  common  Christianity. 

It  is  not  unfrequently  the  wisest  policy  as  regards  certain 
forms  of  error,  to  leave  them  unnoticed.  In  the  excite- 
ment about  Romanism,  which  its  boldness  and  boasting  has 
recently  awakened  in  our  country,  there  is  reason  to  fear 
that  many  will  fall  to  preaching  against  the  Komanists 
where  they  are  little  known,  and  thus  only  help  to  bring 
them  into  notice.  While  well  assured  that  their  grievous 
errors  can  be  refuted,  we  ought  to  remember  that  those 
errors  are  subtle  and  to  some  minds  seductive,  and  that 
here,  just  as  in  the  case  of  infidel  theories  and  objections, 
slight  and  hasty  refutation  is  often  worse  than  none.  So 
too,  there  are  some  minor  religious  denominations,  whose 
vital  breath  is  controversy,  and  who  will  most  surely  die 
when  they  are  most  severely  let  alone. 

§  2.      SUBJECTS   OF   MORALITY. 

We  sometimes  hear  pious  men  speak  with  severe  repro- 
bation of  "  moral  sermons."  It  has  often  been  the  case, 
for  example,  in  the  Church  of  England  during  the  18th 
century,  and  among  American  Unitarians  at  the  present 
time,  that  morality  was  preached  with  little  or  no  reference 
to  the  Atonement  and  the  work  of  the  Spirit,  a  mere  moral- 
ity taking  the  place  of  the  real  gospel.  This  has  estab- 
lished an  association,  in  many  minds,  between  moral 
discourses  and  opp'  sition  to  the  ''doctrines  of  grace."  But 
9 


98  SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

our  Lord's  personal  teachings  consist  mainly  of  morality ; 
and  Paul  and  Peter,  -while  unfolding  and  dwelling  on  the 
salvation  which  is  l^y  grace  through  faith,  have  not  merely 
urged  in  general  a  holy  life,  but  have  given  many  precepts 
with  reference  to  particular,  and  sometimes  minor  duties. 
No  one  among  us  will  question,  that  we  ought  constantly 
to  exhort  believers  to  show  their  faith  by  their  works,  and 
to  be  holy  in  all  their  deportment,  seeing  that  theirs  is  a 
holy  God.  But  there  is  in  many  quarters  a  reluctance,  for 
the  reason  just  mentioned,  to  preach  much  upon  particular 
questions  of  moral  duty.  A  preacher  of  the  gospel  has 
certainly  no  business  preaching  morality  apart  from  the 
gospel.  He  may  present  other  than  strictly  evangelical 
motives,  but  these  must  be  manifestly  subordinate  to  the 
great  motive  of  grateful  love  to  Christ,  and  consecration 
to  His  service.  We  should  exhort  men  to  keep  the  law  of 
God,  for  thus  they  may  be  brought  to  Christ ;  but  to  incite 
unregenerate  people  to  a  so-called  moral  life,  on  the  ground 
merely  of  interest,  of  regard  for  the  well-being  of  society, 
and  even  of  love  for  their  children,  etc.,  is  for  the  preacher 
unsuitable,  save  in  very  peculiar  cases.  He  must  first  call 
men,  as  an  ambassador  for  Christ,  to  be  reconciled  to  God, 
must  insist  upon  the  indispensable  need  of  regeneration 
through  the  Holy  Spirit.  Then,  speaking  to  those  who  are 
looked  upon  as  regenerate,  he  must,  with  all  his  might, 
uige  them  to  true  and  high  morality,  not  only  on  all  other 
grounds,  but  as  a  solemn  duty  to  God  their  Saviour.  The 
only  question  is,  how  far  he  ought  to  go  into  details.  As 
above  intimated,  our  Lord  and  his  apostles  did  go  into 
details,  very  freely.  And  our  preaching  often  suffers  from 
the  fact  that,  while  inculcating  Christian  morality  in  gen- 
eral, we  do  not  bring  the  matter  home  to  the  hearts  and 
daily  lives  of  our  brethren,  do  not  so  delineate  their  practi- 
cal experiences,  and  indicate  their  duty  in  practical  ques- 
tions, as  to  n  ake  them  feel  stimulated  and  encouraged  in 


SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED.  '  99 

the  actual  pursuit  of  holiness.*  At  the  same  time,  these 
questions  are  innumerable  and  often  complicated  and  diffi- 
cult, and  we  are  compelled  to  select. 

Now  certain  limitations,  as  to  the  preaching  of  particular 
morality,  appear  to  be  important.  We  must  not  make 
formal  discussion  of  very  minute  topics.  "Represent  to 
yourself,  for  example,  sermons  on  neatness,  on  politeness,  etc. 
Some  topics  of  this  sort,  doubtless,  may  be  approached,  but 
it  must  be  done  incidentally ;  they  should  never  furnish 
the  subject  of  a  sermon.  Particular  morality  is  not  to  be 
excluded,  but  such  details  of  it  may  have  their  place  in 
more  general  matters,  or  in  historical  subjects."  f  It  is  one 
of  the  advantages  of  expository  preaching,  whether  doc- 
trinal or  historical,  that  it  gives  occasion  for  many  useful 
incidental  remarks  upon  minor  morals,  for  which  we  might 
never  find  a  place  in  formal  subject-sermons.  A  second  lim- 
itation is,  that  the  inculcation  of  morality  must  not  consume 
the  greater  part  of  our  time,  for  it  is  our  chief  business  to 
entreat  men  to  be  reconciled  to  God,  and  the  "  doctrines 
of  grace  "  are  the  great  means  of  making  believers  "  care- 
ful to  maintain  good  w^orks."  J  And  it  is  a  third  limitation,  • 
that  w^e  must  not  so  enter  into  particular  questions  of 
morality,  as  to  make  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  merely 
tributary  to  secular  interests,  and  apparently  to  sink  the 
preacher  in  the  partisan. 

Political  preaching  has  long  been  a  subject  of  vehement 
discussion  in  America,  and  presents  questions  of  great 
importance.  In  Europe,  the  almost  universal  connection 
of  Church  and  State  has  embarrassed  the  subject  with 
complications  from  which  we  are  free.  Government  here 
does  not  interfere  with  religion,  to  support  some,  or  to 

*  There  are  good  observations  on  th  s  subject  in  Robert  Hall's 
Works,  II,  p.  290  fF. 
f  Vinet,  Horn.  p.  83. 
J  See  Titus,  3  :  3-8,  an  important  passage  on  this  subject. 


100  SUBJECTS — CLASSIFIED. 

persecute  i.thers ;  and  we  have  in  this  respect  no  occasion 
to  discuss  governmental  affairs.  Still,  political  measures 
often  involve,  and  are  sometimes  almost  identical  with, 
great  questions  of  right  and  wrong.  The  notion  that 
political  decisions  are  to  be  regularly  made  on  grounds  of 
mere  expediency,  is  dishonoring  to  the  religion  which 
many  of  us  profess,  and  would  ultimately  ruin  any  nation. 
That  truly  pious  men  shall  carry  their  religion  into  poli- 
tics, shall  keep  religious  principle  uppermost  in  all  polit- 
ical questions  which  have  a  moral  character,  is  an  unques- 
tionable and  solemn  duty.  Of  course  it  is  right  that  the 
preacher  should  urge  them  to  do  so ;  and  should  urge  it 
with  special  earnestness  in  times  of  great  political  excite- 
ment, when  good  men  are  often  carried  away.  Now  we  have 
observed  above  that  in  other  matters  it  is  well  not  merely 
to  insist  upon  morality  in  general,  but  to  go  somewhat  into 
details,  thus  illustrating  general  truth,  and  offering  hints 
for  practical  guidance.  Why  then,  it  may  be  asked,  shall 
we  not  do  likewise  in  reference  to  political  matters,  where 
it  is  often  as  difficult  as  it  is  important  for  a  good  man  to 
decide  upon  his  duty?  Why  shall  not  the  preacher  go 
somewhat  into  details  here  ?  The  great  difficulty  is,  that  it 
is  almost  impossible  for  a  preacher  to  do  this  without  tak- 
ing sides.  In  a  country  where  party  feeling  runs  so  high, 
the  great  mass  of  the  people,  too,  being  still  ungodly,  to 
take  sides  at  all,  in  public  discourse,  will  cause  the  preacher 
to  be  at  once  swept  away  by  the  rushing  tide.  He  ceases 
to  sustain  an  impartial  relation  to  all  the  people  over  whom 
he  is  shepherd,  and  becomes,  in  a  matter  which  with  many 
is  more  important  than  religion,  the  friend  of  some,  the 
foe  of  others.  The  irreligious,  and  many  of  the  brethren, 
forget  all  about  the  religious  aims  of  his  preaching,  in  the 
one  absorbing  inquiry  how  much  he  will  help  or  harm 
their  party.  Thus  has  many  a  good  man,  who  was  hon- 
estly striving  to  bring  politics  under  the  control  of  reli- 


SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED.  101 

gious  principle,  been  brought,  before  he  knew  it,  into  the 
position  of  a  recognized  political  partisan.  Upon  perceiv- 
ing such  a  result,  some  preachers  at  once  draw  back,  wiser 
from  their  experience ;  but  others,  proud  of  consistency, 
resolved  to  conquer  opposition,  or  unable  to  see  just  what 
their  mistake  is,  and  how  to  correct  it,  persevere,  with 
deplorable  results.  The  association  which  once  connected 
them  in  the  popular  mind  with  unworldly  feelings  and 
eternal  interests,  is  broken.  Tbeir  power  of  turning  men's 
eyes  away  from  the  things  which  are  seen  to  the  things 
which  are  not  seen,  is  seriously  diminished.  They  become 
comparatively  unable  to  accomplish  the  great  object  which 
a  good  man  in  the  ministry  must  cherish,  the  object  of 
saving  souls.  Besides,  the  temporal  benefits  of  Christianity 
are  greatest  just  in  proportion  as  there  is  most  of  true 
spirituality.  Preachers  do  men  most  good  as  to  this  world 
in  proportion  as  they  bring  them  to  care  most  for  the 
world  to  come.  In  losing  this  higher  power,  then,  one  has 
likewise  actually  lost  the  most  efiectual  means  of  advan- 
cing those  lower  ends  at  which  he  was  aiming.  While 
striving  to  bring  some  of  the  motive  power  to  bear  upon 
one  subordinate  work,  he  has  left  the  boiler  to  burst,  and 
now  can  do  neither  the  greater  nor  the  less. 

'*  To  the  Christian,  everything  becomes  Christian No- 
thing except  sin  is  profane  :  life  is  not  divided  ;  there  is  no  point  at 

which  Christianity  stops  abruptly This  is  not  saying  that 

because  everyting  is  regarded  by  a  Christian  in  a  christian  man- 
ner, everything  may  become  a  subject  for  a  sermon.  The  pulpit 
has  not  been  erected  to  treat  all  things  in  a  christian  manner;  it 
has  a  special  purpose,  which  is  to  introduce  the  christian  idea  into 
life.  ...  In  its  principles,  and  in  its  particular  applications,  it  is 
properly  Christianity  which  it  teaches:  Christianity  is  uppermost; 
Christianity  is  it«  object;  all  else  is  but  example,  illustration,  etc. 

Whatever  aims  to  advance  society  without  doing  this  through 

the  individual,  (through  the  individual's  christian  advancement,)  is 

external    to    the  object  of  preaching As    to  patriotic  and 

9* 


102  SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

political  sermons,  they  are  rather  to  be  avoided,  and  yet  in  certain 
grave  circumstances,  we  may  be  obliged  to  touch  upon  such  sub- 
jects in  the  pulpit.  On  one  hand,  the  human  character  of  Chris- 
tianity puts  it  into  contact  with  all  the  interests  of  life,  gives  it  a 
word  to  speak  in  all  circumstances;  on  the  other  hand,  it  never 
surrenders  its  liberty  to  place  and  time,  and  with  extreme  reserve, 
mixes  itself  with  everything  that  does  not  bear  the  stamp  of  eter- 
nity  I  believe,  indeed,  that  we  cannot  wholly  avoid  dis- 
coursing to  the  public  on  that  which  preoccupies  and  absorbs  it ; 
but  we  must  discourse  to  it  only  in  order  to  calm  or  moderate  it. 
Control  worldly  affairs  without  touching  them;  have  to  do  with 
them  only  to  impress  a  character  upon  them;  show  them  to  your 
hearers  from  the  heights  of  heaven.     See  the  Lord  and  his  apostles. 

It  is  remarkable  that  loving  their  nation  as  they  did,  they 

should  have  approached  political  subjects  with  so  much  reserve."* 
"  The  Christian  preacher  can  do  more  towards  promoting  the 
eSrthly  and  temporal  interests  of  mankind,  by  indirection,  than  by 
direct  efforts.  That  minister  who  limits  himself,  in  his  Sabbath 
discourses,  to  the  exhibition  and  enforcement  of  the  doctrines  of 
sin  and  grace,  and  whose  preaching  results  in  the  actual  conver- 
sion of  human  beings,  contributes  far  more,  in  the  long  run,  to  the 
progress  of  society,  literature,  art,  science,  and  civilization,  than 
he  does,  who,  neglecting  these  themes  of  sin  and  grace,  makes  a 
direct  effort  from  the  pulpit  to  'elevate  society.'  In  respect  to 
the  secular  and  temporal  benefits  of  the  Christian  religion,  it  is 
eminently  true,  that  he  that  finds  his  life  shall  lose  it.  When  the 
ministry  sink  all  other  themes  in  the  one  theme  of  the  Cross,  they 
are  rewarded  in  a  twofold  manner  :  they  see  the  soul  of  man  born 
into  the  kingdom  of  God  ;  and  then,  as  an  inevitable  consequence, 
with  which  they  had  little  to  do  directly  but  which  is  taken  care  of 
by  the  providence  of  God,  and  the  laws  by  which  He  administers 
his  government  in  the  earth,  they  also  see  arts,  sciences,  trade, 
commerce,  and  political  prosperity,  flowing  in  of  themselves.  They 
are  willing  to  seek  first  the  kingdom  of  God  and  his  righteousness, 
and  find  all  these  minor  things, — infinitely  minor  things,  when 
compared  with  the  eternal  destiny  of  man,  —  added  to  them  by  the 
operation,  not  of  the  pulpit,  or  of  the  ministry,  but  of  Divine  laws 
and  of  Divine  providence.  But,  whenever  the  ministry  sinks  the 
Cross,   wholly  or  in  part,   in  semi-religious  themes,  they  are  re- 

*  Vinct,  Ilom.  p.  71-4,  and  86-7. 


SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED.  103 

warded  with  nothing.  They  see.  as  the  fruit  of  their  labors,  neither 
the  conversion  of  the  individual  nor  the  prosperity  of  society. 
That  unearthly  sermonizing  of  Baxter,  and  Howe,  so  abstracted 
from  all  the  temporal  and  secular  interests  of  man,  so  rigorously 
confined  to  human  guilt  and  human  redemption,  —  that  preaching 
which,  upon  the  face  of  it,  does  not  seem  even  to  recognize  that 
man  has  any  relations  to  this  little  ball  of  earth  ;  which  takes  him 
otf  the  planet  entirely,  and  contemplates  him  simply  as  a  sinner  in 
the  presence  of  God,  —  that  preaching,  so  destitute  of  all  literary, 
scientific,  economical,  and  political  elements  and  allusions, — was, 
nevertheless,  by  indirection,  one  of  the  most  fertile  causes  of  the 
progress  of  England  and  America."* 

Many  persons  insist  that  the  minister  must  have  nothing 
to  do  with  politics,  not  even  to  the  extent  of  voting,  or  of 
the  formation  and  private  expression  of  political  opinions. 
Some  take  this  ground  from  false  notions  of  the  "  clergy- 
man's "  position ;  but  a  Christian  minister  is  no  more  a 
priest  than  a  Christian  layman,  and  nothing  is  intrinsic- 
ally wrong  to  the  one  which  is  not  to  the  other.  Some 
urge  as  follows:  "A  minister  may  well  be  absolved  from 
preaching,  or  even  forming  opinions  on  politics.  He  has 
the  common  right  of  all  citizens  so  to  do  ;  but  his  proper 
work  is  enough  for  all  his  time  and  powers.  The  great 
themes  of  religious  truth  are  enough  to  occupy  more  time 
than  he  can  get."f  But  there  is  too  much  disposition 
among  scholarly  and  refined  men  to  leave  voting  to  the 
masses  and  the  demagogues.  A  well-informed  man,  in 
this  country,  cannot  avoid  the  formation  of  opinions  upon 
politics ;  and  by  voluntary  ignorance  of  current  affairs, 
more  is  lost  by  the  working  pastor  than  gained.  The 
minister  ought  to  have  his  opinions,  and  ought  to  vote ; 
and  he  may  state  his  views  in  private  conversation,  with 
more  or  less  reserve  according  to  circumstances.  He 
Bhould  in  the  pulpit  urge  and  conjure  his  Christian  hearers 

*  Shedd,  Horn.  p.  248-9. 

f  Alexander,  Thoughts  on  Preaching,  p.  47. 


104  SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

to  be  controlled  in  their  political  action  by  Christian  prin- 
ciple. To  go  into  details,  and  suggest  how  they  ought  to 
vote  in  a  particular  issue,  is  lawful,  but  in  general  highly- 
inexpedient  ;  the  little  good  done  will  almost  certainly  be 
overbalanced  by  the  harm  that  in  various  ways  must 
result.  If  a  preacher  ever  takes  such  a  course  at  all,  it 
should  be  in  very  peculiar  and  extraordinary  cases,  and 
even  then  his  discussion  should  be  brief,  well-considered, 
and  temperate,  and  gladly  abandoned  for  other  themes 
If  ever  the  great  majority  of  controlling  politicians  should 
be  truly  pious  men,  it  might  be  not  inexpedient  for  the 
preacher  to  offer  suggestions  upon  current  political  ques- 
tions —  but  then  it  would  be  hardly  worth  while. 

There  are  other  very  important  and  difficult  topics  of 
particular  morality,  such  as  Temperance,  and  the  question 
oi  Amusements ;  but  a  few  remarks  upon  these  must  suf- 
fice. The  preacher  should  by  all  means  avoid  ultraism. 
Some  things  not  sinful  in  themselves,  it  is  yet  best  to  ab- 
stain from  because  they  so  readily  and  widely  lead  to  sin. 
But  here  there  is  at  once  seen  to  be  room  for  difference  of 
opinion.  Not  everything  should  be  avoided  which  is  often 
grossly  abused  ;  and  however  clear  it  may  seem  to  us  that 
some  particular  thing  should  be,  another  man  may  per- 
haps judge  otherwise.  Even  though  vehement  in  condem- 
nation, we  must  not  be  indiscriminate.  And  if  in  the 
natural  desire  to  take  strong  ground  we  represent  the  use 
of  intoxicating  beverages,  dancing,  and  games  of  amuse- 
ment, as  in  themselves  sinful,  and  under  all  circumstances 
wrong,  we  assume  an  extreme  and  false  position,  which 
must  eventually  weaken  our  cause.  If  discriminating  and 
considerate  views,  leading  to  a  regard  for  their  example 
and  influence,  and  a  recognition  of  possible  danger  to 
themselves  and  their  families,  will  not  restrain  men  in 
these  respects,  then  extravagance  and  violence,  even  if 
controlling  a  few,  will  in  general  but  repel  and  provoke^ 


SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED.  105 

stimulaling  the  ^vrong  practices  in  question,  and  driving 
many  away  from  the  gospel.     The  world  is  full  of  great 
and  dreadful  evils,  which  may  well  excite  both  grief  and 
indignation,  and  which  call  loudly  for  correction ;  but  one 
evil  is  not  to  be  cured  by  another.     Again,  we  must  not 
merely  condemn  the  wrong,  but  exhort  to  the  right.  Preach- 
ing on  these  subjects  too  often  consists  merely  in  vehement 
assaults.      Much   more  may  be   accomplished  if  we  also 
encourage  the  right-minded  to  a  proper  course,  and  affec- 
tionately point  out  to  them  the  beginnings  of  evil  against 
which  they  must  guard.     The  latter  course  may  not  afford 
so  much  occasion  for  impassioned  and   boisterous  "elo- 
quence," but  it  will  hardly  be  on  that  account  the  less  use- 
ful.    Severe  censure  is  sometimes  necessary,  but  encourage- 
ment to  do  right  is  always  in  place,  and  often  more  potent. 
"Eeprove,    rebuke,    exhort,  with    all    long-suffering   and 
teaching."  *     And  finally,  it  is  usually  better  to  treat  these 
subjects  in  the  course  of  our  ordinary  preaching,  than  to 
make  set  sermons  upon  them.     These  may  draw  a  crowd, 
if  that  is  all,  but  the  formal  discussion  invites  criticism 
and   awakens  opposition,  and  even  if  really  convincing, 
finds  the  persons  most  concerned  particularly  hard  to  con- 
vince.    Arguments  and  appeals  from  time  to  time,  as  sug- 
gested by  the  subject  or  the  occasion,  will  make  no  unfa- 
vorable impression,  and  steady  perseverance  will  gradually 
call  back  and  win  over  all  whom  it  is  possible  to  influence. 
Only,  let  not  the  preacher  make  any  particular  vicious 
practice  or  social  usage  his  hobby  ;  for  then  folks  will  but 
smile  at  all  he  can  say. 

§  3.      HISTORICAL   SUBJECTS. 

It  would  be  unnecessary  to  urge  that  history  is  attrac- 
tive for  all  who  read,  and  full  of  varied  instruction  for  all 

*2Tim.  4:2. 


106  SUBJECTS CLASSIFIED. 

who  read  thoughtfully.  And  the  most  instructive  history 
is  that  of  the  Bible.  A  leading  writer  en  the  philosophy 
of  history  has  declared  that  no  such  philosophy  can  h? 
constructed,  save  by  the  recognition  of  a  providential 
purpose  which  pervades  all  events  and  links  them  into 
unity.  In  the  Bible  the  designs  of  Providence  are  not 
left  to  be  judged  of  by  our  sagacity,  but  are  often  clearly 
revealed,  so  as  to  show  us  the  meaning  of  things  obscure, 
and  the  real  co-working  of  things  apparently  antagonistic. 
Thus  the  Bible  histories  act  like  the  problems  worked  out 
in  a  treatise  of  Algebra,  teaching  us  how  to  approach  the 
other  problems  presented  by  the  general  history  of  the 
world.  The  oft-quoted  saying  of  an  ancient  writer  that 
"history  is  philosophy  teaching  by  example,"  applies 
nowhere  so  truly  as  to  the  inspired  records,  which  are  God 
himself  teaching  by  example. 

Moreover,  nothing  so  interests  us  all  as  a  person.  No 
inanimate  object,  or  general  proposition,  will  make  much 
impression  upon  mankind  at  large,  unless  it  is  personified 
or  impersonated,  or  invested  with  some  personal  interest. 
The  poet,  delighting  in  nature,  instinctively  feels  as  if 
communing  with  a  person.  Even  so  abstract  a  thing  as  a 
system  of  philosophy,  is  usually  remembered  in  connec- 
tion with  a  personal  teacher.  A  benevolent  enterprise 
seldom  takes  much  hold  on  the  popular  mind,  unless  it  is 
associated  with  some  honored  man,  its  embodiment  and 
representative.  A  celebrated  lecturer  on  history  once 
stated  in  conversation  that  he  found  it  difficult  to  interest 
a  popular  audience,  if  he  presented  merely  historical  events, 
periods,  or  lessons ;  these  must  be  associated  with  some 
person.  Now  the  Bible  not  only  consists  very  largely  of 
history,  but  the  greater  part  of  its  history  is  really  biogra- 
phy, the  story  of  individual  lives,  exhibiting  the  most 
various  and  instructive  examples  of  character,  both  good 
and  bad,  of  both  sexes,  and  of   every  condition  in  life. 


SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED.  107 

And  this  great  historical  picture  groups  all  its  figures 
around  one  Person,  to  whom  some  look  forward  with  long- 
ing and  others  look  back  with  love,  and  whose  very  enemies 
unwillingly  stand  connected  with  him. 

All  this  being  true,  it  would  seem  that  historical  sub- 
jects of   preaching  ought  to   be  much  more  frequently 
employed  than  is  actually  the  case.     Several  reasons  for 
the  comparative  neglect  of  them  may  be  suggested.     The 
greater  part  of  devout    ministers    unwisely  overlook  the 
human  elements  in  Scripture  history.     If  not  carried  away 
by  the  passion  for  finding  "  types  of  Christ,"  so  as  to  care 
little  for  the  persons  and  events  that  cannot  possibly  be 
thus  regarded,  they  still  fail  to  study  these  histories  as 
history.     They  do  not  trace  the  progress  of  events  in  the 
history  of  Israel  as  in  that  of  any  other  nation,  allowing 
for  the  occasional  miraculous  interferences,  and  searching 
amid  the  mingled  web  of  Israel's  affairs  for  the  golden 
thread  of  Providential  purpose.     They  do  not  analyze  the 
character  and  motives  of  inspired  men,  as  "  men  of  like 
passions  "  with  ourselves,  men  who  struggled  as  we  have  to 
do,  with  their  own  infirmities  and  the  thronging  tempta- 
tions of  life.     They  shrink  from  contemplating  the  genuine 
but  sinless  humanity  of  the  glorious  central  Person,  which 
makes  him  so  real  and  so  unspeakably  valuable  an  example 
for  us,  at  the  same  time  that  he  is  our  Divine  Redeemer. 
As  another  reason,  few  ministers  gain  that  minute  and 
familiar  acquaintance  with  Scripture  Geography,  with  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  Jews  and  related  nations,  and 
with  the  profane  history  which  comes  into  connection  with 
Biblical  events,  which  would  enable  them  to  realize  the 
scenes  and  reproduce  them  with  vivid  coloring,  so  as  to 
kindle  the  imagination  of  their  hearers ;  nor  do  they  culti- 
vate, as  all  preachers  should  do,  the  power  of  description.* 

*  See  on  Imagination,  Part  III,  chap.  5,  and  comp.  on  Expos. 
Preaching,  Part  II,  chap.  3, 


108  SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

On  the  other  hand  some  make  historical  subjects  simply 
the  occasion  for  displaying  their  descriptive  powers,  or 
exhibiting  their  archaeological  learning,  without  teaching 
any  useful  lessons,  and  thus  establish  an  association  in  the 
minds  of  ma.ny  hearers  between  historical  sermons  and 
mere  "  word-painting."  And  further,  preachers  who  know 
or  suppose  themselves  to  have  little  talent  for  description 
are  apt  to  forget  that  one  of  the  chief  benefits  of  historical 
preaching  is  derived  from  the  analysis  of  character  and 
motive.  We  all  find  it  so  hard  to  understand  our  fellow- 
men,  or  ourselves,  that  it  is  a  great  blessing  to  have  in 
some  Scripture  examples  the  veil  taken  ofl^,  and  the  real 
motives  and  true  character  of  men  laid  bare  to  our  inspec- 
tion ;  and  in  many  other  cases,  to  have  suggestive  and 
reliable  indications  to  provoke  and  encourage  enquiry. 
Living  instances  could  be  mentioned  of  very  able  men, 
who  had  rarely  attempted  historical  subjects,  because  con- 
scious of  possessing  little  talent  for  description  ;  but  when 
the  simple  suggestion  was  made  that  they  could  bring  to 
bear  their  analytical  powers  upon  the  character  of  some 
Scripture  personage  or  the  motives  of  the  actors  in  some 
Scripture  scene,  they  soon  found  themselves  much  inter- 
ested in  historical  discourses,  and  found,  too,  that  they 
could  throw  in  excellent  touches  of  description  by  the 
way. 

The  history  of  Christianity  outside  of  the  Bible,  from 
the  earliest  times  to  our  own,  furnishes  much  instructive 
and  interesting  material  for  preaching ;  but  to  draw  the 
subject  of  a  sermon  from  this  source  would  be  unwise.  A 
sermon  upon  the  life  and  character  of  Augustine,  Calvin, 
Wesley,  Fuller,  Hall  or  Judson  might  be  really  useful, 
but  the  tendency  would  be  towards  one  of  the  abuses  of 
Romanism;  substituting  panegyrics  of  the  saints  for  Bib« 
lical  preaching. 


SUBJECTS CLASSIFIED.  109 

§4.      EXPERIMENTAL   SUBJECTS. 

Historical  subjects  manifestly  include  doctrinal  and 
•Jioral  elements ;  and  yet  those  subjects  have  really 
a  distinct  character.  In  like  manner  experimental 
subjects  partake  of  the  doctrinal,  the  moral,  and  the 
historical,  but  are  so  distinct,  and  of  such  importance, 
as  to  deserve  separate  classification  and  notice.  The 
actual  experiences  of  men  in  receiving  the  gospel  and 
living  according  to  it  ought  to  be  delineated ;  always 
under  the  guidance  of  Scripture  doctrine,  precept,  and 
examples,  but  still  delineated  as  we  find  them  to  be. 
Such  matters  will  enter  largely  into  the  substance  of 
many  discourses  whose  subject  is  doctrinal,  moral,  or 
historical ;  but  the  chief  phases  of  religious  experience 
deserve  to  be  somewhat  frequently  made  the  subject  of 
special  and  careful  discussion.  Material  for  this  purpose 
is  to  be  drawn  from  the  Bible,  from  treatises  bearing  on 
the  subject,  and  biographies,  from  the  preacher's  own 
experience,  and  with  particular  advantage  from  frequent 
conversation  with  richly  experienced  Christians,  making 
allowance  for  their  peculiarities  of  temperament  and 
theological  opinion,  and  for  their  degrees  of  culture.  The 
preacher,  like  the  physician,  ought  in  addition  to  what 
is  learned  from  books,  to  "study  cases,"  as  they  arise  in 
his  practical  labors. 

It  would  surely  be  very  useful  sometimes  to  depict  the 
life  of  an  irreligious  man,  as  it  is  now  going  forward  on 
week-days  and  Sundays,  in  business  and  in  society  and  at 
home ;  to  do  this  without  exaggerating  in  order  to  make  a 
striking  picture,  without  ignoring  the  man's  better  impulses, 
good  intentions,  kindly  affections,  etc.  —  to  make  him  out, 
so  far  as  possible,  just  what  he  is.  After  pondering  the 
matter,  and  asking  a  good  many  thoughtful  questions  of 
some  intelligent  brethren  as  to  their  personal  recollections, 
10 


110  SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

a  preacher  might  be  able,  modestly  and  with  good  success, 
to  treat  such  a  subject.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  describe 
Conviction  of  Sin,  the  various  methods  in -which  it  is 
wrought,  and  the  causes  by  which  it  is  often  weakened  and 
brought  to  nothing.  So  with  Conversion.  Accounts  of 
conversion  in  persons  differing  in  temperament,  religious 
education,  etc.,  carefully  analyzed,  so  as  to  distinguish 
the  general  from  the  "peculiar,  are  always  interesting,  and 
may  be  made  exceedingly  profitable.  The  early  Baptist 
preachers  who  travelled  from  New  England  to  Georgia, 
preaching  depravity,  atonement  and  regeneration  to  an 
ignorant  and  gainsaying  people,  often  made  a  great  impres- 
sion and  gave  most  important  instruction,  by  telling  their 
own  experience.  And  then  the  varieties  of  experience  in 
the  Christian  life — what  subjects  they  afford  for  preach- 
ing. The  Christian's  Conflicts  ;  Backsliding  and  Progress ; 
Despondency  and  Assurance ;  Sickness  and  Bereavement,  — 
these  are  often  discussed  in  every  evangelical  pulpit.* 

To  speak  at  all  of  our  own  experience  is  a  task  to  be 
performed  with  special  prayer  for  humility  and  delicacy, 
lest  we  injure  our  own  character,  and  repel  hearers  of  fas- 
tidious tastes.  But  most  of  us  shrink  too  readily  from  this 
duty.  The  apostle  Paul  has  spoken  frequently,  and  some- 
times at  great  length,  of  his  conversion,  the  trials,  conflicts 
and  consolations  of  his  subsequent  life,  and  of  his  present 
purposes  and  hopes  ;  and  the  Psalms  consist  almost  entirely 
of  recorded  experiences.  One  thing,  however,  is  to  be 
specially  guarded  against,  in  all  attempts  at  depicting 
religious  experience,  and  especially  in  allusions  to  our 
own ;  we  are  so  apt  to  imagine,  or  at  least  to  speak  as  if 
we  imagined,  that  all  experiences  will  be  like  ours.  A 
preacher  or  other  Christian  whose  conversion  was  con- 
sciously sudden  will  almost  always  speak  of  conversion  as 

*See  some  good  remarks  in  Waj'land's  Ministry  of  the  Gospel,  p. 
86-96. 


SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED.  Ill 

sudden;  one  in  whom  the  work  was  gradual  and  slow, 
will  give  a  corresponding  description.  So  with  the  hope- 
ful and  the  desponding,  the  fully  assured  and  the  often 
doubting,  etc.  We  are  prone  to  forget  that  Christian 
experience,  like  the  human  countenance,  will  in  no  two 
persons  be  precisely  alike,  and  often  presents  many  and 
striking  differences,  though  the  great  characteristic  fea- 
tures are  always  the  same. 

§  5.      OCCASIONAL   SERMONS. 

•  It  is  convenient  to  offer  at  this  point  a  few  suggestions 
as  to  sermons  on  particular  occasions,  or  addressed  to 
particular  classes. 

Funeral  Sermons  are  demanded  by  so  powerful  a  senti- 
ment and  sustained  by  so  general  usage,  that  the  attempts 
of  some  to  abolish  the  custom,  inevitably  fail.  Those  who 
clearly  see  and  vehemently  condemn  the  faults  which  dis- 
figure many  funeral  discourses,  are  very  apt,  when  them- 
selves bereaved,  to  find  their  hearts  demanding  such  a  ser- 
vice, and  will  not  unfrequently  prefer  the  very  preacher 
whose  course  had  often  seemed  to  them  most  objectiona- 
ble. Sorrowing  and  softened,  we  feel  then  a  special  need 
of  God's  mercy  and  grace,  and  the  preacher  should  gladly 
seize  the  opportunity  to  recommend  the  gospel  of  conso- 
lation, and  to  impress  the  need  of  personal  piety,  that  we 
may  be  ready  to  live  and  ready  to  die.  And  not  only  will 
some  habitual  hearers  be  then  better  prepared  to  receive 
the  word,  but  persons  will  be  present  who  seldom  attend 
the  place  of  worship.  It  is  highly  important,  therefore, 
that  funeral  sermons  should  clearly  point  out  the  way  of 
life,  and  tenderly  invite  to  the  Saviour.  Moreover,  in 
the  freshness  of  our  grief  we  instinctively  desire  to  utter, 
or  at  least  to  hear,  some  eulogy  upon  the  departed  ;  and 
all  nations  have  had  some  method,  by  speech  or  song  or 
broken  lament,  of  indulging  the  desire.     That  among  us 


112  SUBJECTS CLASSIFIED. 

Christian  ministers  are  expected  to  perform  this  function, 
■while  it  sometimes  places  them  in  a  difficult  position,  is  yet 
a  sign  of  their  influence,  and  a  means  of  using  that  influ- 
ence to  good  purpose.  But  the  preacher  must  remember 
that  he  is  not  a  mere  eulogist  of  the  dead,  but  only  adds 
this  task  to  his  work  of  preaching  the  gospel.  Accord- 
ingly, his  utterances  as  to  the  departed  must  be  only  a 
part  of  what  he  says,  usually  but  a  small  part,  and  must 
be  scrupulously  true.  No  promptings  of  his  own  sorrow, 
nor  regard  for  the  feelings  of  others,  must  lead  him  to  the 
exaggerated  praises  which  are  so  natural.  When  the 
departed  was  a  Christian,  he  should  speak  chiefly  of  that 
fact,  bringing  out  anything  in  the  character  or  course  of 
life  which  he  knows,  and  others  will  recognize,  to  be 
worthy  of  imitation.  When  it  was  not  a  Christian,  he 
may  sometimes  lawfully  speak  a  few  soothing  words  as  to 
anything  which  specially  endeared  the  deceased  to  his 
friends.  But  this  must  be  done,  if  done  at  all,  without 
exaggeration,  and  it  is  a  solemn  duty  to  avoid  saying  one 
word  which  suggests  that  these  good  points  of  character 
afford  any  ground  of  hope  for  eternity.  Some  preachers 
will  on  such  occasions  give  the  lie  to  all  their  ordinary 
preaching,  by  leaving  room  to  suppose  that  without  being 
born  again  a  very  excellent  person  may  perhaps  see  the 
kingdom  of  God.  "He  did  not  make  any  profession  of 
religion,  hut  he  was,  etc.,  etc.,  and  we  leave  him  to  the 
mercy  of  God."  Or,  "he  had  never  professed  to  be  a 
Christian,  hut  he  was  perfectly  willing  to  die"  —  as  if  that 
proved  anything.  Nay,  if  the  deceased  did  not  give  evi- 
dence of  being  regenerate,  a  believer  in  Christ,  let  us  say 
nothing  about  his  eternal  future,  nothing  whatever.  Any 
such  suggestions  encourage  the  ignorant  or  unthinking  in 
false  hopes,  and  to  right-minded  mourners  are  but  a  mock- 
ery of  their  woe.  Pains  should  be  taken  not  to  make  much 
of  death-bed  conversions,  w^hich  are  proverbially  uncertain, 


SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED.  113 

and  tlie  hope  of  which,  as  a  last  resort,  is  so  often  taken  by 
the  living  as  an  encouragement  to  delay.  In  general,  the 
preacher  ought  to  exercise  reserve  in  what  he  says  of  the 
departed ;  and  in  the  case  of  wicked  people,  it  is  frequently 
in  the  best  taste,  and  shows  the  most  real  kindness,  to  say 
nothing.  Young  preachers  sometimes  allow  themselves,  in 
their  first  sermons  of  this  sort,  to  indulge  in  copious  eulo- 
gies with  no  great  foundation,  and  then  afterwards  seem 
compelled  to  do  likewise  in  cases  where  they  feel  it  to  be  a 
great  trial,  and  know  that  they  are  liable  to  do  serious 
harm  to  the  cause  of  truth.  It  will  save  much  embar- 
rassment to  begin  right. 

The  services  on  such  occasions,  and  especially  the  ser- 
mon, are  often  made  too  long.  "A  prevailing  fault  of 
funeral  discourses  is  the  occupation  of  too  much  time  with 
generalities  or  truths  that  have  no  special  application  to 
the  existing  circumstances.  It  is  far  better  to  confine  such 
discourses  to  narrower  limits,  and  to  that  particular  range 
of  thought  which  all  will  recognize  to  be  pertinent."  *  TJie 
tendency  to  ostentatious  parade  in  funerals,  which  is  in 
some  communities  a  great  evil,  ought  in  every  judicious 
way  to  be  discouraged. 

Academic  Sermons,  i.  e.  sermons  at  institutions  of  learn- 
ing, or  on  occasions  of  literary  interest,  are  often  managed 
in  a  very  mistaken  fashion.  The  preacher  imagines  that 
he  must  not  give  a  regular  gospel  sermon,  but  must  betake 
himself  to  matters  highly  erudite  or  metaphysical.  It  is 
really  desirable  on  such  occasions  to  preach  upon  emi- 
nently evangelical  topics,  the  very  heart  of  the  gospel. 
Science  and  erudition  are  the  every-day  work  of  these 
professors  and  students ;  from  you,  to-day,  they  had  much 
rather  hear  something  else.  Even  those  who  care  nothing 
for  religion  will  feel,  as  persons  of  taste,  that  it  is  cougru- 

*  Kidder's  Horn.,  p.  280,  where  there  are  other  good  remarks. 
10* 


114  SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

0U9,  becoming,  for  a  preacher  to  preach  the  gospel ;  while 
the  truly  pious,  yearning  over  their  unconverted  asso- 
ciates, will  long  to  have  the  preacher  urge  saving  truth 
upon  them  in  the  most  practical  way,  and  with  whole- 
souled  earnestness.  Of  course  the  sermon  should  have 
point,  force,  freshness ;  and  the  associations  of  the  occa- 
sion may  sometimes  suggest  slight  peculiarities  of  allusion, 
illustration,  and  style ;  but  it  ought  to  be  a  sermon  full  of 
Christ,  full  of  prayerful  zeal  to  save  souls.  Ah !  as  one 
looks  over  those  hundreds  of  intelligent  young  faces,  and 
his  heart  goes  out  to  them  in  sympathy  and  love,  —  as  he 
thinks  what  a  pov/er  they  will  be  in  the  world  for  good  or 
for  evil,  and  how^  they  are  all  there  present  before  God,  to 
hear  his  message,  he  must  surely  feel  an  unwonted  emo- 
tion, a  solemn  sense  of  privilege  and  responsibility ;  and  if 
never  before,  there  ought  to  be  true  of  him  then,  those 
words  of  Baxter, 

*'  I  preached  as  never  sure  to  preach  again, 
And  as  a  dying  man  to  dying  men." 

In  like  manner.  Convention  Sermons,  all  sermons  at  the 
opening  of  any  general  religious  assembly,  are  never  so 
acceptable  to  devout  hearts,  and  never  so  helpful  to  the 
objects  of  such  an  assembly,  as  when  they  are  filled  with 
the  very  essence  of  the  gospel. 

Of  discourses  addressed  to  particular  classes,  it  is  pro- 
posed to  mention  only  Sermons  to  Children.  Suggestions 
on  this  subject  will  of  course  also  bear  upon  less  formal 
addresses,  in  the  Sunday  School,  etc.  Every  one  notices 
how  few  persons  succeed  decidedly  well  in  speaking  to 
children.  But  many  preachers  possess  greater  power  in 
this  respect  than  they  have  ever  exercised,  because  they 
have  never  devoted  to  the  subject  much  either  of  reflec- 
tion, observation,  or  heedful  practice.  Examples  may  be 
found  of  men  who  for  years  considered  that  they  had  no 


SUBJECTS — CLASSIFIED.  115 

talent  for  speaking  to  children,  and  whose  attempts  were 
always  comparative  failures,  and  yet  who  afterwards  be- 
came very  popular  and  useful  in  this  important  depart- 
ment of  preaching.  Can  any  help  be  given  towards  the 
development  of  this  power  ? 

It  has  been  frequently  remarked  that  in  the  young  child 
imagination  is  predominant ;  in  the  child  of  ten  or  twelve 
years,  memory ;  and  not  until  they  arc  nearly  grown,  do 
the  powers  of  abstraction  and  reasoning  become  active. 
It  is  to  the  two  former  classes  that  we  commonly  speak, 
whatever  is  aimed  at  older  people  being  also  addressed  to 
the  children.  We  see  at  once  that  it  is  necessary  to  avoid 
abstract  terms,  and  formal  processes  of  reasoning.  Many 
preachers  find  this  difficult  because  they  are  too  much 
accustomed,  even  for  the  wants  of  the  ordinary  adult  mind, 
to  discourse  upon  gospel  doctrine  in  an  abstract  and  purely 
argumentative  way;  and  learning  how  to  preach  to  chil- 
dren may  make  them  better  preachers  in  general.  ]\Ierely 
to  refrain  from  using  long  w^ords  is  not  the  thing  needed. 
Children  understand  polysyllables  just  as  well  as  mono- 
syllables, when  they  represent  concrete,  and  familiar,  or 
easily  intelligible  conceptions.  Besides,  those  of  a  dozen 
years  are  not  pleased  at  the  appearance  of  excessive  effort 
to  use  short  words  to  them,  as  if  they  had  no  sense. 
Eschew,  then,  all  abstract  terms.  And  instead  of  argu- 
mentation, give  them  facts  and  truths,  confidently  stated, 
with  the  quiet  air  of  authority  to  which  children  naturally 
bow.  Let  these  facts  and  truths  be  so  stated,  described, 
or  illustrated,  as  to  awaken  the  imagination.  The  illus- 
trations should  generally  be  in  the  form  of  narrative,  (as 
the  Great  Teacher's  were,)  and  the  stories  and  descriptions 
should  be  pictorial  —  not  minutely  finished  pictures,  for 
children  weary  of  those,  but  with  broad  outlines,  promi- 
nent features,  and  vivid  touches  of  suggestive  detail.  Thus 
telling  them  what  they  will  receive  as  interesting  facts  or 


116  SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED. 

important  truth,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  charm  the  imagi- 
nation, we  are  able  to  reach  the  child's  affections  and  con- 
science. Only  through  what  ajDpeals  to  the  imagination 
can  this  be  readily  done.* 

The  children  must  feel  that  they  are  learning  something, 
and  must  see  that  we  are  trying  to  do  them  good.  However 
thoughtless,  changeable,  passionate,  a  child  may  be,  its  con- 
science is  active.  Every  child  quickly  recognizes  the  pro- 
priety of  our  seeking  to  win  it  to  love  and  serve  the  Lord, 
and  feels  that  something  is  lacking  where  this  is  not  the 
case.  However  great  the  external  attractions  of  a  Sunday 
School,  it  will  soon  grow  dull  to  the  little  ones  if  they  do 
not  learn,  especially  learn  the  Bible,  and  breathe  there  an 
atmosphere  of  genuine  piety.  The  spasmodic  efforts  to 
keep  up  the  interest  which  are  sometimes  observed  in  S.  S. 
officers  and  speakers  must  only  become  more  and  more 
vehement  and  extravagant,  if  they  are  neglecting  religious 
instruction  and  devotional  impressiveness. 

In  dealing  with  such  restless  beings,  variety  is  of  course 
indispensable.  If  the  same  man  speaks  to  them  long,  he 
must  have  great  variety  of  matter,  feeling,  and  utterance. 
Nothing  pathetic,  or  even  solemn,  can  long  engage  their 
attention,  save  under  extraordinary  circumstances ;  and  it 
is  therefore  proper  to  make  free  use  of  the  natural  reaction 
between  pathos  and  humor.  The  childish  mind  readily 
passes  "  from  grave  to  gay,"  and  almost  as  readily  back 
again  to  what  is  grave.  Few  men  can  succeed  well  in 
speeches  or  sermons  to  children,  unless  they  are  able  to 
employ  at  least  a  few  touches  of  humor.  But  if  some 
speakers  through  uniform  gravity  fail  to  maintain  the  in- 
terest, a  still  greater  number  at  the  present  day  indulge  in 
such  an  excess  and  predominance  of  humor,  as  to  fail  of 
doing  real  good,  and  by  degrees  to  lose  the  power  even  of 

*  On  the  province  and  power  of  Imagination,  see  Part  III,  chap.  5. 


SUBJECTS  —  CLASSIFIED.  117 

holding  the  children's  attention.  The  humor  employed  had 
best  be  delicate ;  it  may  be  broad  and  grotesque,  but  never 
coarse  or  silly.  It  must  be  manifestly  subordinate  to  a 
serious  purpose.  Children  feel  that  you  have  no  business 
seeking  on  that  occasion,  merely  to  amuse  them ;  and  the 
funniest  story,  the  oddest  saying,  the  wittiest  allusion  must 
by  analogy  or  by  contrast  give  impressiveness  to  something 
useful  and  serious,  or  else  it  is  out  of  place,  and  ought  to 
have  been  omitted.  And  a  perpetual  succession  of  merely 
funny  things,  will  soon  utterly  pall  upon  the  children's 
taste.  The  little  ones  that  hear  much  speaking,  grow  to 
be  keen  critics ;  and  it  were  well  if  some  speakers  could 
often  hear  their  talk  at  home.* 

Speak  then,  of  interesting  and  instructive  facts  and 
truths,  in  concrete  and  familiar  terms,  without  formal  argu- 
ment, analytical  processes,  or  abstract  ideas.  Speak  to  the 
child's  imagination,  heart,  and  conscience.  Speak  with  a 
prevailing  seriousness,  with  an  earnest  desire  to  do  them 
good.  And  if  you  would  learn  their  range  of  ideas  and 
their  vocabulary,  would  find  the  door  to  their  hearts,  talk 
much  with  children,  and  allure  them  into  talking  freely  to 
you. 

There  is  at  present  usually  too  broad  a  difference  in  style 
and  tone  between  sermons  to  children  and  speeches  to  them. 
If  the  sermons  could  be  a  little  more  familiar,  and  the 
speeches  a  good  deal  more  serious,  than  is  commonly  the 

*  "  He  kept  trying  to  make  us  laugh  all  the  time,  and  I  got  mighty 
tired  of  that."  "He  told  us  about  a  little  boy,  and  wound  up  like 
they  always  do,  you  know,  '  And  children,  that  little  boy  is  here 
to-day.'  "  "  He  tried  very  hard  to  be  funny,  but  I  didn't  feel  like 
laughing."  "0  pa,  do  you  think  anybody  ought  to  be  saying  so 
many  foolish  things,  when  he's  talking  about  our  Saviour?"  "0 
me,  I  used  to  think  that  story  was  right  funny,  but  I  've  heard  it  so 
often."  Parents  sometimes  have  difficulty  in  correcting  the  evil 
effects  which  are  indicated  by  such  sayings. 


118     GENERAL     MATERIALS    OF    PREACHmO. 

case,  then  suggestions  for  the  one  could  without  anv  appear- 
ance of  incongruity  apply  to  the  other. 

The  remark  may  be  added,  as  of  great  importance,  that 
children  are  not  to  be  addressed  as  pious,  but  as  needing  to 
become  so;  and  that  they  have  to  become  Christians  in 
essentially  the  same  way  as  adults,  by  repentance  and  faith, 
through  the  rencAving  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Great  mischief 
results  from  the  fact  that  so  many  who  speak  to  children 
seem  not  to  perceive  clearly,  or  to  keep  distinctly  in  mind, 
this  unquestionable  truth. 


CHAPTEE    ly. 

Geneeal  Materials  of  Preaching  —  Originality,  Borrowing, 
AND  Plagiarism.  §  I.  Materials  Possessed  Beforehand. 
g  2.  Materials  Provided  at  the  Time  of  Preparation. 
I  3.  Original  Materials.  ^  4.  Borrowed  Materials  and 
Plagiarism. 

§  1.      MATERIALS    POSSESSED   BEFOREHAND. 

THE  chief  materials  of  a  sermon  are  in  the  great  mass 
of  cases  not  really  invented  at  the  time  of  preparation ; 
they  are  the  results  of  previous  acquisition  and  reflection. 
This  is  true  even  of  much  that  seems  to  the  preacher  him- 
self to  have  then  for  the  first  time  a  place  in  his  mind ; 
it  is  in  fact  the  revival  of  something  forgotten,  or  the 
development  of  something  already  known.  In  this  re- 
spect inexperienced  and  comparatively  uncultivated  young 
preachers  are  often  greatly  deceived.  Their  early  sermons 
are  made  with  ease.  Ardent,  zealous,  excited,  they  find 
that  thought  springs  spontaneous  in  the  mind,  and  feeling 
flows  like  a  torrent.  They  imagine  that  it  will  always  be 
'easv  to  find  somethino^  to  .sav  which  will  interest  themselves 


GENERAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHING.     119 

and  their  hearers.  But  they  are  like  men  who  have 
inherited  a  fortune  in  cash,  and  who  spend  their  principal 
as  if  it  were  but  income.  Rejoicing  in  his  facility  of 
speech,  the  young  preacher  is  not  aware  that  he  is  drawing 
upon  all  that  he  has  thought,  felt,  and  seen,  all  that  he  has 
read  and  heard,  since  his  childhood.  And  not  a  few  go  on 
for  some  months  or  years,  consuming  all  their  store,  and 
evoking  all  that  their  minds  are  so  constituted  as  readily 
to  produce,  and  presently  begin  to  wonder  and  lament 
that  they  find  it  so  much  harder  than  formerly  to  make  a 
sermon.  In  like  manner,  preachers  who  are  growing  old 
sometimes  complain  that  people  will  not  listen  to  them  as 
in  other  days,  when  the  difficulty  is  that  they  have  ceased 
to  maintain  activity  of  mind  and  good  store  of  fresh 
thought ;  and  unable  to  interest  themselves,  they  of  course 
cannot  interest  others.  These  somewhat  frequent  and  very 
painful  experiences  only  illustrate  the  proposition  —  we 
draw  our  sermons  mainly  from  what  we  have  wrought  out 
or  learned  beforehand.  And  when  the  preacher  speaks 
from  great  fulness  of  thought,  then  what  he  says  borrows 
power  from  what  is  in  reserve,  as  the  head  of  water  gives 
force  to  that  which  strikes  upon  the  wheel.  It  follows  that, 
next  to  the  cultivation  of  personal  piety,  there  is  nothing 
for  which  the  preacher  should  so  earnestly  labor,  from  his 
first  call  to  the  close  of  his  life,  as  the  acquisition  of 
abundant  general  materials  for  preaching. 

"The  preacher  ought  to  acquire  and  cultivate  a  homiletical  hab- 
itude. Preaching  ia  his  business.  For  this  he  has  educated  him- 
self, and  to  this  he  has  consecrated  his  whole  life.  It  should,  there- 
fore, obtain  undisputed  possession  of  his  mind  and  his  culture.  He 
ought  not  [save  in  peculiar  cases]  to  pursue  any  other  intellectual 
calling  than  that  of  sermonizing  He  may,  therefore,  properly 
allow  this  species  of  authorship  to  monopolize  all  his  discipline 
and  acquisitions.  It  is  as  fitting  that  the  preacher  should  be  char- 
acterized by  a  homiletical  tendency,  as  that  the  poet  should  be 
characterized  by  a  poetical  tendency.     If  it  is  proper  that  the  poet 


120     GENERAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHING. 

should  transmute  every  thing  that  he  touches,  into  poetry,  it  is 
proper  that  the  preacher  should  transmute  every  thing  that  he 
touches,  into  sermon. 

•'  This  homiletical  habit  will  appear  in  a  disposition  to  skeletonize, 
to  construct  plans,  to  examine  and  criticize  discourses  with  respect 
to  their  logical  structure.  The  preacher's  mind  becomes  habitu- 
ally organific.  It  is  inclined  to  build.  Whenever  leading  thoughts 
are  brought  into  the  mind,  they  are  straightway  disposed  and 
arranged  into  the  unity  of  a  plan,  instead  of  being  allowed  to  lie 
here  and  there,  like  scattered  boulders  on  a  field  of  drift.  This 
homiletic  habit  will  appear,  again,  In  a  disposition  to  render  all  the 
argumentative,  and  illustrative,  materials  which  pour  in  upon  the 
educated  man,  from  the  various  fields  of  science,  literature,  and  art, 
subservient  to  the  purposes  of  preaching.  The  sermonizer  is,  or 
should  be,  a  student,  and  an  industrious  one,  a  reader,  and  a  thought- 
ful one.  He  will,  consequently,  in  the  course  of  his  studies,  meet 
with  a  great  variety  of  information  that  may  be  advantageously  em- 
ployed in  sermonizing,  either  as  proof  or  illustration,  provided  he 
possesses  the  proper  power  to  elaborate  it,  and  work  it  up.  Now, 
if  he  has  acquired  this  homiletic  mental  habit,  this  tendency  to  ser- 
monize, all  this  material,  which  would  pass  through  another  mind 
without  assimilation,  will  be  instantaneously  and  constantly  taken 
up,  and  wrought  into  the  substance  and  form  of  sermons."* 

♦'  The  possession  of  such  an  intellectual  habitude  as  this,  greatly 
facilitates  immediate  preparation  for  the  pulpit.  It  is,  virtually,  a 
primary  preparation,  from  which  the  secondary  and  more  direct 
preparation  derives  its  precision,  thoroughness,  rapidity,  and  eflfect- 
iveness.  Without  it,  the  preacher  must  be  continually  forced  up 
to  an  unwelcome  and  ungenial  task,  in  the  preparation  of  discourses, 
instead  of  finding  in  this  process  of  composition,  a  grateful  vent 
for  the  outflow  and  overflow  of  his  resources."  f 

These  materials  will  of  course  be  drawn  from  every 
source.  No  kind  of  knowledge  can  be  utterly  useless  to 
a  preacher,  and  reflection,  upon  whatever  subjects,  will 
always   leave    him    something   which    may   hereafter   be 

*  These  materials  will  readily  overflow,  in  the  form  of  Bkeletons,  meta- 
phors, illustrations,  &c.,  into  the  preacher's  Commonplace  Book.  (Shedd's 
note.) 

tShedd,  Horn.  p.  108. 


GENERAL  MATERIALS  OF  PREACHING.  121 

turned  to  account.  But  it  may  be  well  to  remark  upon 
the  principal  sources  from  which  materials  for  preachino- 
are  derived. 

The  Scriptures  themselves  should  at  every  period  of  his 
life  be  a  preacher's  chief  study.  When  we  meet  a  young 
brother  who  has  just  become  convinced  that  it  is  his  duty 
to  preach,  and  who  is  inquiring  about  preparation  for  the 
work,  our  first  word  ought  to  be,  the  Bible  —  not  so  much, 
at  the  outset,  the  profound  study  of  doctrinal  epistles  or 
prophetical  books,  as  the  familiar  and  accurate  knowledge 
of  historical  facts,  the  analysis  of  Biblical  characters,  the 
memorizing  of  devotional  passages  and  of  precepts,  the 
acquisition  of  a  general  familiarity  with  the  contents  of 
particular  books  and  of  the  entire  sacred  collection. 
Young  ministers,  even  graduates  of  colleges,  are  often 
found  sadly  deficient  as  to  this  general  knowledge  of  the 
Bible ;  while  the  best  Sunday  Schools,  as  well  as  the 
most  admirable  family,  instruction,  have  usually  but  laid 
the  foundation  for  such  knowledge  as  the  preacher  should 
make  haste  to  gain.  And  every  stage  of  culture  and 
experience,  as  life  goes  on,  presents  fresh  occasion  and 
new  facilities  for  studying  the  Bible.  In  the  originals,  if 
possible,  in  the  English  version  at  any  rate  ;  *  by  the  rapid 
reading  of  large  portions,  by  the  thorough  study  of  a  given 
book,  by  the  minute  examination  of  particular  passages, 
and  sometimes  even  by  looking  at  sentences  here  and  there 
as  we  turn  over  the  leaves;  by  reading  in  company  with 
others,  for  discussion  or  for  sympathy,  by  reading  when 
alone  with  our  beating  hearts  and  our  God ;  by  adopting 
new  methods  for  variety,  and  by  steadily  maintaining  old 
methods  till  they  become  habitual ;  by  reading  when  we 
enjoy  it,  as  a  pleasure,  and  when  at  the  beginning  we  do 
not  enjoy  it,  as  a  duty,  —  every  way,  and  continually,  let 

*  Comp.   above,  chap.  2,  §  2,  ]. 
11 


122  GENEKAL  MATERIALS  OF  PREACHING. 

US  keep  up,  freshen,  extend  our  acquaintance  with  the 
precious  Word  of  God.  The  study  of  Systematic  Divin- 
ity will  but  prepare  us  better  to  appreciate  the  separate 
teachings  of  Scripture  as  they  stand  in  their  own  connec- 
tion. Every  kind  of  knowledge  we  gain  should  lead  to 
further  examination  of  that  which  is  for  us  the  centre  of 
all  knowledge,  and  the  various  experiences  of  life  should 
be  constantly  bringing  us  back  to  find  ncAV  meaning, 
strength,  and  consolation  in  God's  Word.  And  we  must 
constantly  beware  lest  we  fall  into  the  habit  of  reading  the 
Bible  only  as  a  perfunctory  matter,  a  professional  duty. 
In  the  spirit  of  personal  devoutness,  with  a  desire  for 
personal  benefit,  and  with  the  constant  prayer  that  God 
would  bless  us  in  learning-and  in  teaching,  let  us  study  the 
Bible,  that  we  may  "  both  save  ourselves,  and  them  that 
hear  us."  * 

Systematic  Theology  is  of  unspeakable  importance  to  the 
preacher,  indispensable  if  he  would  be  in  the  best  sense 
instructive,  and  exert  an  abiding  influence  over  his  hearers. 
This  enables  him  to  speak  with  the  boldness  of  assured 
conviction,  giving  him  a  confidence  in  the  great  system 
of  inspired  truth  which  no  minute  criticism  can  shake,  f 
This  prepares  him  to  urge  one  doctrine,  or  to  unfold 
and  apply  one  text,  without  the  fear  of  offending  against 
another  —  a  fault  into  which  many  ministers  are  grieved 
to  remember  how  often  their  early  sermons  fell.  This 
renders  it  practicable  to  discuss  particular  aspects  of  a 

*  Alexander  has  some  admirable  thoughts  and  suggestions  on  the 
study  of  the  Bible,  especially  for  ministers  of  middle  age,  and  of 
considerable  attainments,  in  Thoughts  on  Preaching,  p.  56-60,  and 
p.  464-6. 

f  An  eminent  English  Bishop,  and  leading  writer  on  Exegesis, 
states  in  a  private  letter  his  persuasion  that  the  study  of  System- 
atic Theology  would  have  prevented  much  of  that  semi-skepticism 
which  is  now  painfully  common  among  the  clergy  of  the  Church  of 
England. 


GENERAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHIXG.     123 

doctrine  in  different  sermons,  in  such  a  way  as  by  degrees 
to  impart  a  good  knowledge  of  the  doctrine  as  a  whole. 
And  the  manifest  possession  of  a  systematic  acquaintance 
with  revealed  truth  gives  him  authority  with  the  people. 
They  readily  listen  to  one  who  has  definite,  positive,  and 
well-considered  opinions ;  and  no  uninspired  man,  even 
of  the  highest  genius,  has  a  right  to  be  so  authoritative 
in  his  utterances  upon  moral  and  spiritual  truth,  as  a 
preacher  of  humble  powers,  who  speaks  from  a  thorough 
and  systematic  study  of  God's  Word.*  Exegesis  and  Sys- 
tematic Theology  properly  go  hand  in  hand.  Neither  is 
complete,  neither  is  really  safe,  without  the  other.  And 
while  a  man  will  be  apt  to  feel  himself  specially  attracted 
towards  one  of  them,  according  to  his  mental  constitution 
and  training,  and  will  naturally  work  extensively  at  that 
one,  he  ought  also  diligently,  regularly,  and  through  life, 
to  pursue  the  other.  A  preacher  ought  almost  always  to 
have  on  hand  some  able  treatise  of  Theology,  new  or  old, 
which  he  is  regularly  studying,  or  some  particular  topic  of 
Divinity,  which  he  makes  the  subject  of  much  reading  and 
reflection. 

Of  other  reading,  regarded  as  an  important  source  of 
materials  for  preaching,  there  can  be  only  brief  mention. 
Church  History  does  not  usually  receive  from  working 
ministers  the  attention  it  deserves.  Especially  does  the 
history  of  Doctrines  assist  one  in  understanding  the  truth, 
and  in  comprehending  those  objections  and  erroneous  ten- 
dencies which  under  different  forms  reproduce  themselves 
in  every  age.  Every  religious  denomination  has  certain 
characteristic  or  favorite  doctrines,  which  its  standard 
works  bring  out  with  clearness  and  prominence ;  so  that 
apart  from  the  necessary  provision  for  polemical  preaching, 
and  from  the  common  stock  of  Christian  Theology,  there 
is  much  to  )e  leasned  by  studying  the  peculiar  opinions  of 

*  Comp.  Shedd,  Horn,  p,  26  ff. 


124  GENERAL  MATERIALS  OF  PREACHING. 

different  denominations.  Ethical  Philosophy  furnishes  a 
rich  store  of  materials  for  those  who  can  really  master  its 
discussions,  and  adapt  their  results  to  the  conditions  of 
practical  preaching ;  and  there  are  some  works,  such  as 
Butler's  Analogy  and  McCosh  on  the  Divine  Government, 
occupying  a  sort  of  border  ground  between  Ethics  and 
Theology,  which  are  unsurpassed  in  value.  Some  minis- 
ters are  "  too  metaphysical  "  in  their  preaching,  but  very 
many  are  not  metaphysical  enough  in  their  studies*  The 
study 'of  Sermons  is  not  only  very  useful  with  reference  to 
the  art  of  sermonizing,  but  affords  much  valuable  mate- 
rial, provided  it  be  not  borrowed  directly,  but  assimilated 
by  reflection  and  made  part  of  one's  own  thinking.  The 
careful  analysis  and  thorough  and  repeated  examination 
of  a  few  rich  and  impressive  sermons,  is  much  better,  in 
every  respect,  than  the  cursory  reading  of  many. 

And  so  as  to  all  our  reading.  Young  men  who  have 
enjoyed  but  limited  opportunities  of  culture,  and  have 
never  looked  out  with  eager  eyes  upon  the  great  world  of 
books,  sometimes  need  to  be  urged  to  read  more  widely ; 
but  in  the  immense  majority  of  cases,  very  different  advice 
is  required.  He  who  would  become  really  a  man  must 
abandon  as  early  as  possible  the  childish  dream  of  reading 
everything.  Except  what  is  done  for  recreation  —  and 
excessive  recreation  is  destruction—  he  must  have  a  lim- 
ited field  of  study,  and  must  cultivate  that  field  with  the 
utmost  possible  thoroughness.  And  upon  every  subject 
studied,  he  must  find  out  the  best  books,  and  restrict  him- 
self almost  entirely  to  those.  If  the  men  of  true  scholar- 
ship and  real  power  were  called  on  to  give  one  counsel  to 
young  students,  in  this  age  of  multiplied  books,  they  would 
probably  all  unite  in  saying.  Head  only  the  best  works  of 

*  "Read  Butler,  and  preach  to  the  negroes,"  was  the  advice 
given  to  a  young  preacher,  twenty  years  ago,  by  a  judicious  senior. 


GENEKAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHING.     125 

the  great  authors,  and  so  read  these  as  to  make  them 
thoroughly  and  permanently  your  own.* 

Whether  it  is  better  to  make  extracts,  summaries,  and 
references  in  a  Commonplace  Book,  or  to  rely  mainly  on 
memory  in  reading,  will  depend  on  a  man's  turn  of  mind 
and  general  habits,  and  on  the  kind  of  reading  in  question. 
Even  a  man  of  extraordinary  memory  can  hardly  dispense 
with  memoranda  in  reading  books  of  information ;  while 
books  of  thought,  though  they  may  be  profitably  analyzed 
in  writing,  should  be  thought  over,  thought  through  and 
through,  and  then  all  that  is  cognate  to  our  own  thinking 
will  be  retained  without  difficulty.  As  regards  whatever 
is  not  matter  of  pure  thought,  an  important  part  of  the 
benefit  derived  from  reading  is  this,  that  one  will  always 
know  where  to  look  for  what  he  wants ;  and  this  can  be 
best  accomplished  by  a  system  of  references,  etc.,  unless 
the  power  of  local  memory  is  found,  upon  fair  trial,  to  suf- 
fice for  the  purpose.  Whichever  method  one  adopts,  he 
must  strive  to  make  the  best  of  it,  guarding  carefully 
against  its  disadvantages  and  dangers. 

But  there  are  other  sources  of  materials  for  preaching, 
besides  books.f  A  preacher's  knowledge  of  human  nature, 
and  knowledge  of  the  world,  his  experience  of  life,  and 
especially  of  the  religious  life,  his  conversation  with  those 
around  him  upon  religious  and  upon  general  themes,  his 
perpetual  reflection  upon  everything  felt,  observed,  or 
heard — these  afford  a  large  part  of  his  most  valuable 
materials.  And  all  his  previous  preaching,  if  rightly 
managed,  has  but  enriched  the  mind  to  meet  further 
demands.  If  one  merely  scrapes  together  thoughts  around 
a  subject,  so  as  to  make  a  sermon,  then  every  sermon  con- 
sumes part  of  his  material,  and  leaves  him  poorer.  But 
if  he  habitually  penetrates  into  a  subject  and  masters  it, 

*  Comp.  Shedd,  Horn.  p.  121-4. 
•    I  Upon  sources  of  Illustration,  see  remarks  below,  chap.  7. 
11* 


126  GENERAL  MATERIALS  OF  PREACHING. 

every  sermon  leaves  him  richer;  not  that  he  can  shortly 
preach  again  upon  the  same  topic  or  text,  but  that  he  is 
better  prepared  for  treating  others  akin  to  it.  There  is  a 
fertilizing  production.  In  this  sense  too,  "there  is  that 
scattereth,  and  yet  increaseth." 

§  2.     MATERIALS   PROVIDED    AT   THE   TIME. 

These  embrace  the  interpretation  of  the  text,  and  the 
choice  of  a  subject,  which  we  have  already  considered. 
The  precise  mode  of  stating  a  subject  can  in  many  cases 
not  be  fixed  until  after  we  have  wrought  out  much  of  the 
general  materials  for  the  treatment  of  it.  Besides  inter- 
pretiug  the  text,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  phrase,  much 
may  be  derived  from  reflecting  on  it,  and  on  its  connection. 
If  the  treatment  be  textual  or  expository,  a  large  part  of 
the  materials  will  be  derived  from  this  study  of  the  text ; 
if  it  be  a  subject-sermon,  still  the  text  and  its  context  may 
furnish  much  that  will  be  useful  in  the  discussion  of  the 
topic.  Then  fixing  the  mind  upon  the  subject,  or  in  suc- 
cession upon  the  several  related  subjects  furnished  by  the 
textual  or  expository  method,  the  preacher  must  attempt 
the  complete  analysis  and  copious  development  of  the 
matters  involved,  and  the  collection  of  all  associated  mat- 
ters which  are  likely  to  be  useful. 

Kidder  gives  some  good  "  practical  suggestions  in  refer- 
ence to  invention,  in  the  form  of  rules : 

"1.  Address  your  mind  to  the  invention  of  thoughts, 
not  words.  Words  may  be  employed,  but  only  as  auxil 
iaries. 

"  2.  Note  down  or  otherwise  make  sure  of  whatever  rele- 
vant thoughts  your  mind  can  call  to  its  aid,  irrespective  of 
order  or  mainly  so. 

"3.  At  first  be  not  too  scrupulous  on  the  subject  of  rele- 
vancy. Entertain  whatever  seemingly  good  thoughts  come 
at  your  call.     Try  them,  push  them  out  to  conclusions. 


GENERAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHING.     127 

Perhaps  if  not  available  themselves  they  will  lead  to  others 
that  are. 

"4.  Pursue  invention  in  every  variety  of  circumstance, 
in  the  study  and  out  of  it.  Make  it  the  subject  of  special 
and  protracted  occupation,  and  also  of  occasional  attention, 
when  walking  or  riding,  when  taking  exercise  or  rest.  One's 
very  dreams  at  night  may  often  be  made  serviceable  for 
this  object. 

*'  5.  Make  an  early  selection  of  subjects  in  order  to  secure 
the  advantages  of  the'  repeated  and  incidental  action  of 
the  inventive  powers.  [He  means,  early  in  the  week.  This 
course  was  pursued  and  recommended  by  Robert  Hall.] 

"  6.  Use  former  studies  and  preparations  as  helps  to  inven- 
tion rather  than  as  substitutes  for  it. 

"  Invention  as  thus  practised  will  always  strengthen  but 
never  exhaust  itself.  It  will  become  a  most  delightful 
exercise,  causing  the  mind  to  glow  with  rapture  at  its  new 
creations  and  combinations."  * 

The  important  part  w^hich  Imagination  plays  in  the 
invention  of  materials  w^ill  be  noticed  in  a  subsequent  chap- 
ter ;  t  and  the  reaction  of  arrangement  upon  invention  will 
attract  our  attention  in  discussing  that  subject.  J  The 
question  how  far  and  in  what  ways  we  may  properly 
employ  commentaries,  sermons  upon  the  same  text,  etc.,  in 
preparing  a  sermon,  will  be  examined  presently.  || 

§  3.      ORIGINAL    MATERIALS. 

Whether  the  materials  are  possessed  beforehand,  or  pro- 
vided at  the  time  of  preparation,  it  is  obvious  that  they 
might  be  original,  or  borrowed.  Under  this  latter  division 
they  will  now  be  considered. 

1.  Originality  may  be  absolute,  or  relative.     By  the  for- 

*  Kidder,  Horn.  p.  152.  %  Part  II,  chap.  1. 

f  Part  III,  chap   5.  1|  See  g  4  of  the  present  chapter 


128  GENERAL  MATERIALS  OF  PREACHING. 

mer  is  meant  bringing  into  existence  thoughts  Avhich  the, 
world  never  knew  before,  which  had  never  arisen  in  any 
human  mind.  Of  course  this  must  be  very  rare.  In  the 
physical  world,  new  facts  are  now  constantly  ascertained, 
and  new  mechanical  contrivances  invented.  But  in  the 
world  of  ideas,  it  is  very  difficult  to  be  absolutely  orig- 
inal.* "  The  ancients  have  stolen  all  our  best  ideas,"  is 
one  of  the  sayings  of  the  great  Edinburgh  Reviewer  which 
cannot  soon  be  forgotten.  And  not  in  modern  times  alone 
has  this  been  felt.     Hear  Chaucer : 

"  For  out  of  the  old  fieldes,  as  men  saithe, 
Cometh  al  this  new  corne  fro  yere  to  yere, 
And  out  of  old  bookes,  in  good  faithe, 
Cometh  al  this  new  science  that  men  lere." 

And  Confucius,  six  centuries  before  our  era,  proclaimed 
himself  only  a  student  of  antiquity.  Yet  even  in  this 
absolute  sense,  originality  is  possible,  and  we  should  not 
despair.  Progress  in  some  directions  the  world's  thought 
does  slowly  make.  Among  all  the  uncounted  millions  of 
men,  patient  thinkers  are  far  from  numerous ;  and  he  who 
will  patiently  think,  why  may  he  not  light  upon  some 
thought  unknown  to  those  who  have  gone  before  him  ? 

But  relatively,  an}''  man  may  be  original,  and  to  some 
extent  every  man  is  so.  We  produce  thoughts  which  were 
not  by  us  derived  from  any  other  mind,  though  other  minds, 
at  the  time  unknown  to  us,  have  also  produced  them.  The 
same  phases  of  nature  and  experiences  of  life  awaken  in 
us  the  same  reflections  they  have  awakened  in  many 
others ;  and  seed-thoughts  attain  in  us  the  same  develop- 
ments. Here  there  is  everything  to  encourage.  Much  of 
the  mental  quickening,  the  conscious  vigor,  and  buoyant 
self-reliance,  which  result  from  absolute  originality,  may 

*  Shedd,  Hom.  p.  8,  makes  it  impossible,  but  he  uses  the  word 
absolute  in  a  differei  t  sense. 


GENERAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHING.     129 

also  be  wrought  in  us  by  thoughts  relatively  original.  Of 
course  the  mental  elation  will  not  be  so  great,  where  we 
know  that  others  must  have  had  the  same  thought.  In 
fact,  some  of  the  most  marvellous  self-conceit  is  to  be 
observed  in  certain  very  ignorant  men,  who  mistake  their 
relative  originality  for  absolute  ;  thoughts  having  occurred 
to  them  which  neither  they  nor  their  ignorant  neighbors 
had  heard  of,  are  supposed  to  be  equally  new  to  all  the 
world. 

Now  the  basis  of  preaching  cannot  be  original,  because 
it  must  come  from  Scripture.  But  the  preacher  may  be 
original,  in  several  ways.  He  may  have  original  views  of 
the  meaning  of  Scripture.  It  is  entirely  possible  that  any 
one  of  us  should  attain  more  just  conceptions  of  the  mean- 
ing of  some  passage,  or  certain  aspects  of  a  doctrine,  than 
have  ever  before  been  gained.  And  to  interpret  and  pon- 
der for  ourselves,  in  the  sense  of  relative  originality,  is 
the  privilege  and  the  duty  of  all.  We  have  no  right  to 
take  for  granted  that  commentators  and  theologians  are 
correct  in  their  opinions ;  and  in  fact  theological  discords 
and  conflicts,  with  all  their  evils,  have  this  advantage, 
that  they  compel  the  most  trusting  and  the  most  slothful 
of  us  somewhat  to  feel  the  necessity  of  thinking  for  our- 
selves. What  freshness,  what  power  there  is,  in  truths 
which  the  preacher  has  himself  wrought  out  from  Scrip- 
ture, drawing  with  his  own  bucket,  as  Lord  Bacon  says, 
"immediately  where  it  springeth."  The  student  of  phys- 
ical science  must  observe  nature  for  himself;  and  so  in 
Theology,  we  must  open  our  own  eyes  to  behold  and  con- 
template the  teachings  of  God's  Word.  There  is  no 
limit  to  the  relative  originality  which  may  in  this  respect 
be  achieved.  Again,  the  combination  of  Scripture  teach- 
ings with  the  facts  and  truths  which  we  derive  from 
nature,  providence,  human  nature,  life,  affords  large  room 
for  originality.     Here  in  every  direction  the  mind  may 


130     GENERAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHING. 

expatiate,  bringing  all  things  into  relation  to  the  Word  of 
God.  And  then  in  the  choice  of  topics,  the  construction 
of  discourse,  the  illustration  and  application  of  truth,  a 
preacher  may  perpetually  devise  what  shall  be  in  some 
respects  fresh,  and  relatively  to  him,  original. 

Originality  is  sometimes  aimed  at  in  unworthy  ways,  or 
made  matter  of  affectation.  Men  of  a  certain  character 
will  take  up  with  some  heresy,  merely  to  display  independ- 
ence, to  show  that  they,  forsooth,  are  not  tied  down  to  the 
old  opinions.  Paradox  may  be  properly  employed,  as  it 
is  by  some  able  teachers  and  preachers,  as  it  was  by  our 
Lord  himself,  to  awaken  attention  to  truth ;  but  there  are 
those  who  deal  in  the  paradoxical  as  showing  originality. 
Oddity,  in  ideas,  expressions,  or  manner,  is  a  mere  carica- 
ture of  originality.  To  say  that  such  and  such  a  preacher 
is  "  an  original,"  is  to  use  the  term  in  a  very  degraded 
sense.  Young  men,  and  even  older  ones,  sometimes  pre- 
tend not  to  read,  lest  it  should  impair  their  originality. 
"  We  have  seen  the  works  of  a  painter,  who  would  see  no 
Kaffaelles  or  Van  Dycks,  lest  he  should  spoil  his  native 
manner.  He  has  certainly  succeeded  in  avoiding  all  that 
one  beholds  in  these  great  masters."  * 

2.  Why  is  originality  so  desirable  ?  We  may  answer, 
first,  that  independent  thinking,  more  than  anything  else, 
will  develop;  discipline  and  strengthen  the  mind.  In  the 
matter  of  mental  improvement,  it  must  never  be  forgotten, 
the  hardest  way  is  the  easiest  way,  the  slow  way  the  swift- 
est. So  far  as  a  man's  health  and  vigor  is  concerned,  a 
week's  quiet  walking  is  worth  much  more  than  a  week's 
travel  on  the  cars,  though  the  latter  should  carry  him 
thousands  of  miles.  If  it  be  possible,  let  us  persuade  our- 
selves to  much  of  independent  and  patient  thinking; 
otherwise  we  shall  never  be  men. 

Again,   remember    that    originality    renders    discourse 

*  Alexander,  Thoughts  on  Preaching,  p.  362. 


GENERAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHING.     131 

greatly  more  attractive  and  impressive.     Ou  the  one  hand, 
an  original  thought  interests  the  speaker  more.     It  is  his 
offspring;    it  awakens  in  him  a  parental  affection,  and 
perhaps  a  thrill  of  parental  pride.     It  is  his  possession  ; 
he  is  no  dispenser  now  of  other  men's  bounty,  but  gives 
of  his  own ;  and  in  knowledge  as  elsewhere,  "  to  give  is 
happier  than  to  receive."     But  no  analogies  will  do  justice 
to  the  feeling  —  the  pleasure,  the  confidence,  the  hopeful- 
ness and  earnestness,  with  which  a  man  utters  what  is  even 
relatively  original.     On  the  other  hand,  it  interests  the 
audience  more.     As  simply  new,  it  gratifies  their  natural 
love  of  novelty.     If  they  consider   the  thought  original 
with  the  speaker,  there  arises  a  heightened  admiration  of 
him,  and  a  higher  regard  for  all  that  he  says.     And  then 
they  sympathize  with  the  speaker's  own  feeling.     Whatever 
makes  his  mind  glow  will  warm  theirs.     In  general,  no 
man  can  interest  others,  save  by  that  which  exceedingly 
interests  himself     Thus  the  two  causes  combine.     And  no 
doubt  there  are  other  causes.     Analysis  cannot  fully  reach 
the  secret  of  that  delight  with  which  we  regard  what  comes 
as  a  new  creation,  a  fresh  existence.     But  even  a  little 
reflection  should  make  us  feel  more  deeply  the  importance 
of  original  thinking. 

It  is  an  obvious  inference  that  we  ought  to  think  out  for 
ourselves  the  most  familiar  topics,  and  exhibit  them  in  our 
own  manner.  In  discoursing  upon  matters  so  common- 
place as  the  pleasures  of  piety,  or  the  danger  of  delay, 
one  should  strive,  by  long  and  earnest  reflection,  to  gain 
views  of  the  subject,  or  a  method  of  presenting  it,  which 
will  be  his  own.  Happy  the  preacher  who  can  thus  give 
to  momentous  but  too  familiar  themes  some  heightened 
interest,  some  new  impressiveness.  Yet  the  warning  must 
here  be  repeated:  mere  oddity  is  a  very  different  thing 
from  originality,  and  it  is  better  to  be  commonplace  but 
in  earnest,  than  to  be  manifestly  straining  after  novelty. 


132     GENERAL    MATERIALS     OF    PREACHING. 

Another  inference  is,  that  even  ideas  which  have  been 
borrowed,  ought  to  be  so  thoroughly  thought  over  as  to 
become  a  part  of  our  own  thinking.  Otherwise  they  will 
commonly  fail  to  take  a  firm  hold  of  ourselves  or  of  the 
hearers.  As  a  government  often  takes  foreign  coins  and 
passes  them  through  its  own  mint,  so  the  thoughts  derived 
from  others  should  receive  the  stamp  of  our  own  minds, 
which  will  give  them  newness  of  aspect,  full  value,  and 
ready  acceptance. 

3.  Obstacles  to  originality.  These  are  numerous  and 
powerful,  as  might  be  taken  for  granted  when  we  remember 
how  desirable  it  is,  and  yet  how  rarely  it  is  found  in  any 
high  degree. 

Erroneous  views  of  the  nature  of  originality  prevent 
many  persons  from  attaining  it.  Some  imagine  that  there 
can  be  nothing  worth  the  name,  unless  it  be  absolutely 
original,  new  to  the  human  race;  and  as  this  can  of  course 
be  very  seldom  achieved,  they  despair,  and  content  them- 
selves too  commonly  with  taking  ideas  at  second  hand. 
But,  as  we  have  seen,  relative  originality  of  a  very  high 
order  may  exist,  where  there  is  little  or  nothing  of  abso- 
lute addition  to  the  stock  of  human  knowledge,  and  may 
greatly  augment  a  man's  power.  Some  refrain  from  read- 
ing as  a  means  of  promoting  originality,  and  thus  condemn 
themselves  to  great  mental  barrenness.  It  would  be  as 
wise  to  avoid  conversation.  Who  does  not  know  the 
quickening,  fructifying  power  of  talk  with  an  intelligent 
friend  upon  a  subject  we  have  been  studying?  Though 
nothing  be  directly  borrowed,  yet  new  thoughts  are  often 
suggested,  and  we  are  led  to  see  more  clearly  what  we  had 
but  dimly  perceived.  The  same  effect  may  be  produced 
by  reading.  In  general,  Ave  ought  vigorously  and  patiently 
to  think  upon  the  subject  before  either  reading  or  convers- 
ing upon  it;  otherwise,  the  mind  is  in  danger  of  merely 


GENERAL     MATERIALS     OF    PREACHING.     133 

following  the  track  which  others  have  marked  out,  instead 
of  approaching  the  subject  in  its  own  manner.  But  after 
such  personal  reflection,  then  reading  and  conversation 
may  be  found  highly  stimulating  and  suggestive,  leading 
to  much  that  is  really  our  own,  but  which  but  for  this  con- 
tact with  other  minds  would  not  have  occurred  to  us.  A 
third  class,  by  mistaking  oddity  or  eccentricity  for  original- 
ity, misdirect  and  pervert  their  aspirations  and  powers,  and 
not  only  fail  to  accomplish  what  they  might  have  done, 
but  prejudice  many,  who  make  the  same  mistake,  against 
the  idea  of  trying  to  be  original.  And  still  another  error  is 
seen  in  the  fact  that  credit  for  originality  is  so  often  wrongly 
assigned.  Some  men  really  think  profoundly,  and  develop 
views  thoroughly  their  own,  but  as  they  state  them  with 
great  clearness  and  simplicity,  the  masses  think  that  any- 
body might  have  said  that,  and  that  they  themselves  always 
knew  it.  Others,  by  holding  up  dim,  formless  phantoms 
of  thought,  by  using  obscure,  but  high-wrought,  peculiar, 
and  impassioned  language,  are  regarded  as  wonderfully 
original,  when  if  their  ideas  were  brought  out  in  a  clear 
light  they  would  appear  to  be  either  nothing  at  all,  or 
something  very  familiar.  Thus  it  happens  that  aspiring 
young  minds,  setting  out  in  pursuit  of  originality,  are 
sometimes  led  to  seek  it  in  affectations  of  style,  rather  than 
in  genuine,  clear  thinking.* 

It  maybe  said  that  no  persons  capable  of  much  orig- 
inality would  fall  into  such  errors  as  these ;  but  not  only 
do  they  diminish  the  amount  of  original  thinking  in  mul- 

*  Archbishop  Whately  was  fond  of  comparing  this  would-be 
original  style  to  the  case  of  Dean  Swift's  antiquary,  who  had  found 
a  Roman  shield  with  some  very  curious  and  almost  legible  inscrip- 
tions, which  he  invited  a  party  of  friends  to  help  him  decipher ; 
but  the  cook  having  taken  a  notion  to  scour  off  the  rust,  it  turned 
out  to  be  an  old  pot-lid. 
12 


134      GENERAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHING. 

titudes,  but  they  have  also  much  effect  upon  some  men  of 
considerable  powers. 

A  second  hindrance  is  found  in  native  indolence.  Orig- 
inal thinking  is  difficult,  laborious,  and  usually  slow,  the 
hardest  work  that  men  ever  attempt.  Who  can  wonder 
that  easy  borrowing,  or  even  shameless  stealing,  is  so  often 
substituted  ? 

A  third  obstacle,  especially  at  the  present  day,  is  the 
vast  extension  of  literature,  and  the  attractive  forms  which 
new  books  and  periodicals  assume,  seducing  us  by  their 
charm,  or  imposing  on  us  unreal  claims  to  our  acquaint- 
ance. Reading  accompanied  by  honest  thinking,  is  promo- 
tive of  originality  ;  but  we  are  tempted  to  waste  ourselves 
upon  a  species  of  reading  which  does  not  demand  reflec- 
tion, nor  leave  time  for  it.  One  who  is  inclined  to  free 
indulgence  in  light  literature,  must  curb  himself  with  very 
steady  hand,  or  he  will  never  achieve  much  as  a  thinker, 
nor  be  in  any  respect  worth  much  to  the  world.  Even 
of  books  upon  religious  subjects,  very  many  of  the  most 
attractive  that  appear,  are  by  no  means  so  stimulating,  so 
provocative  of  good  thinking,  as  the  older  books  from 
which  they  were  mainly  drawn. 

And  the  character  of  the  age  is  in  many  respects  unfa- 
vorable to  profound  thought.  The  demand  is  for  quick 
processes,  and  so-called  "  practical "  results.  "  Knowledge 
made  easy  "  is  the  rage.  The  inevitable  result  is  a  griev- 
ous tendency  to  superficiality  among  the  people,  and  in 
their  instructors  to  the  display  of  prodigiously  extensive 
and  varied  superficial  attainments.  Teachers  are  tempted 
to  substitute  readiness,  variety,  boundless,  surface-knowl- 
edge, with  brilliancy,  and  point  and  paradox,  for  deep 
thinking,  and  thorough  acciuaintance  with  a  few  subjects. 
We  must  constantly  remind  ourselves  that  real  knowledge 
has  three  dimensions,  length,  breadth  and  depth.  Our  acqui- 
sitions in  that  noble  domain  should  not  be  confined  to  the 


GENERAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHING.    135 

surface  of  things,  but  should  correspond  to  the  old  law  as 
to  the  tenure  of  land,  by  which  possession  extends  up  to 
the  sky,  and  down  to  the  centre  of  the  earth.  Such  knowl- 
edge is  the  handmaid,  nay,  the  sister  of  original  thought  * 
Two  remarks  may  be  made  here  in  conclusion.  One  is, 
that  the  preacher  should  not  desire  to  originate  any  part 
of  the  fundamental  material  of  his  preaching.  He  should 
not  only  submit,  but  rejoice,  to  take  this  from  the  Word  of 
God.  Too  many  preachers  are  in  these  days  seeking  after 
originality,  and  other  novelty,  by  forsaking  the  Scriptures. 
The  other  remark  is,  that  we  must  not  aspire  after  orig- 
inality in  the  spirit  of  pride  or  selfish  ambition,  but  as  a 
means  of  doing  more  to  benefit  men,  and  to  glorify  the 
Redeemer. 

§  4.      BORROWED   MATERIALS   AND   PLAGIARISM. 

A  plagiary,  among  the  Romans,  was  a  kidnapper,  one 
•who  stole  free  men  and  made  slaves  of  them.  A  late 
Roman  writer,  by  a  natural  analogy,  applies  the  odious 
name  to  one  guilty  of  literary  theft,  stealing  a  man's  ideas  ; 
and  the  languages  derived  from  Latin  retain  the  word  in 
this  sense.  Plagiarism  has  from  the  earliest  times  been 
censured  and  satirized,  and  no  man  defends  it,  any  more 
than  other  stealing  would  be  defended.f  But  then  what 
is  plagiarism,  and  what  is  lawful  borrowing  ?  Some  prac- 
tise the  former  who  design  only  the  latter,  and  some, 
through  morbid  dread  of  that  which  is  disgraceful,  shrink 
from  what  is  innocent  and  helpful.     There  are  two  ques- 

•5^  Some  of  these  obstacles  are  mentioned  in  the  Christian  Review 
for  1842,  p.  142  flF. 

f  Chrysostom,  in  his  beautiful  treatise  on  the  Priesthood  (^  451), 
makes  a  slightly  humorous  complaint  as  to  the  charges  of  plagiarism 
made  against  preachers,  sometimes  even  for  repeating  something 
of  their  own. 


136  GENERAL  MATERIALS  OF  PREACHING. 

tions  to  be  coDsidered,  the  proper  use  of  other  men'? 
thoughts,  and  the  proper  acknowledgment  of  such  use. 

1.  What  use  is  it  proper  to  make,  in  preparing  a  ser- 
mon, of  ideas  derived  from  others  ?  The  question  is  in 
principle  the  same,  as  regards  what  -we  have  read,  and 
what  we  have  heard  ;  though  many  persons  use  with  great 
freedom  what  they  have  heard,  in  the  pulpit,  the  lecture- 
room,  or  in  conversation,  who  are  much  more  strict  as  to 
the  fruits  of  reading.  But  in  another  respect  the  inquiry, 
as  a  practical  one  for  him  who  is  about  to  prepare  a  ser- 
mon, divides  again. 

(1.)  What  use  shall  be  made  of  that  which  we  have 
previously  learned  ? 

Never  appropriate  an  entire  discourse,  whether  with  or 
without  acknowledgment.  It  might  be  lawful,  under  pecu- 
liar circumstances,  to  read  to  an  audience  some  choice  ser- 
mon, avowedly  as  reading ;  as  an  occasional  exercise,  by 
a  good  reader,  and  with  a  congregation  who  fancy  it,  this 
might  do  good.  Such  was  in  fact  the  idea  which  Addison 
recommended  in  the  oft-quoted  humorous  account  of  Sir 
Roger  de  Coverley's  chaplain — just  reading  a  sermon  as 
one  might  read  a  poem  ;  and  enjoying  it  in  much  the  same 
way. 

•' '  At  his  first,  settling  with  me,  I  made  him  a  present  of  all 
the  good  sermons  which  have  been  printed  in  English,  and  only 
begged  of  him  that  every  Sunday  he  would  pronounce  one  of  them 
in  the  pulpit.  Accordingly,  he  has  digested  them  into  such  a  series, 
and  they  follow  one  nTio'her  naturally,  and  make  a  continued  system 
of  practical  divinity." 

"As  Sir  Roger  was  going  on  in  his  story,  the  gentleman  we  were 
talking  of  came  up  to  us;  and  upon  the  knight's  asking  him  who 
preached  to-morrow  (for  it  was  Saturday  night),  told  us,  the  Bishop 
of  St.  Asaph  in  the  morning,  and  Dr.  South  in  the  afternoon.  He 
then  showed  us  his  list  of  preachers  for  the  whole  year  ;  where  I 
saw  with  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  Archbishop  Tillotson,  Bishop 
Sanderson,  Dr.   Barrow,   Dr.  Calamy,  with  several  living  authors 


GENERAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHING.     137 

who  have  published  discourses  of  practical  divinity.  I  no  sooner 
eaw  this  venerable  man  in  the  pulpit,  but  I  very  much  approved  of 
my  friend's  insisting  upon  the  qualifications  of  a  good  aspect  and  a 
clear  voice;  for  I  was  so  charmed  with  the  gracefulness  of  his 
figure  and  delivery,  as  well  as  with  the  discourses  he  pronounced, 
that  I  think  I  never  passed  any  time  more  to  my  satisfaction.  A 
sermon  repeated  after  this  manner,  is  like  the  composition  of  a  poet 
in  the  mouth  of  a  graceful  actor."  * 

But  to  preach,  as  preaching,  a  discourse  which  we  ac- 
knowledge to  have  been  borrowed  from  others,  is  so  incon- 
gruous and  unpleasing  a  thing,  as  to  be  very  rarely  done. 
The  real  practice,  with  some  preachers,  is  still  worse.  They 
shrink  from  acknowledging  what  they  do,  but  still  allow 
themselves  to  do  it.  In  England,  this  is  well  known  to  be 
very  common.  It  is  wonderful  how  those  who  boast  of 
being  gentlemen,  can  practise  an  appropriation  which  is 
condemned  by  the  guilty  pains  they  take  to  hide  it.  And 
such  a  usage  on  the  part  of  those  who  profess  to  be  Chris- 
tians, could  never  have  arisen  save  in  connection  with 
radically  wrong  ideas  as  to  the  very  nature  of  preaching. 

Never  appropriate  the  complete  outline  of  a  discourse. 
Many  persons  in  our  country  appear  to  think  this  perfectly 
lawful.  Ludicrous  stories  are  often  told  of  sermons  pursu- 
ing the  same  train  of  thought  with  one  shortly  before 
preached  at  the  same  place;  and  sometimes  the  real  author 
incurs  the  blame.  But  one  rebukes  himself  for  being 
amused  at  such  stories,  for  they  have  a  grave  side,  which 
is  humiliating.  Does  the  evil  of  stealing  depend  on  whether 
one  is  caught  at  it,  as  the  Spartans  taught  their  boys? 
Shall  a  Christian  minister,  in  the  very  performance  of  his 
solemn  duties,  deliberately  do  what  he  would  be  ashamed 
to  confess  ?  Let  any  one  try  the  experiment,  if  he  likes,  of 
acknowledging  that  the  plan  of  his  sermon  is  derived  from 
BO  and  so,  and  see  to  what  an  extent,  save  in  very  pecul  iar 

*  Spectator,  No.  106. 
12* 


138     GENERAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHING. 

cases,  it  will  diminish  the  interest.  The  people  do  not 
merely  come  to  hear  a  discourse — they  come  to  hear  a  liv- 
ing man,  communicating  to  them  his  earnest  thought  and 
feeling ;  and  if  the  principal  ideas  of  the  sermon  are  from 
another  preacher,  they  regard  themselves  as  only  hearing  a 
dead  man.  If  then  it  would  be  bad  policy  to  proclaim  the 
borrowing,  how  can  it  be  honesty  to  conceal  it  ?  The  power 
of  custom,  including  the  known  practice  of  some  good  men, 
the  seductions  of  sloth,  and  the  overwork  to  which  minis- 
ters are  often  subjected,  have  wrought  in  many  minds  a 
confusion  of  ideas  on  this  subject,  which  can  alone  account 
for  the  frequent  cases  of  unacknowledged  appropriation. 

The  books  of  "Sketches  and  Skeletons,"  which  are  so 
often  published  and  so  widely  bought,  are  an  unmitigated 
evil,  and  a  disgrace  to  the  ministry  of  the  gospel.  If  it  be 
said  that  they  may  be  profitably  studied  as  specimens  of 
sermonizing,  there  is  the  obvious  answer  that  it  would  be 
much  more  profitable  to  analyze  for  ourselves  the  full  ser- 
mons of  really  great  men.  There  is  no  excuse  for  such 
books,  and  no  minister  should  suffer  one  of  them  to  remain 
in  his  library.  But  they  are  deplorably  common  in  this 
country,  and  still  more  so  in  Germany.*  Nor  is  the  prac- 
tice of  recent  origin.  As  early  as  1517,  there  appeared  in 
Paris  a  Latin  volume  of  this  character,  entitled  "  The 
Preacher's  Gem,"  and  styling  itself  "a  most  excellent  and 
divine  work."  And  at  Amsterdam  in  1642,  appeared, 
"  Dormi  secure :  vel  Cynosura  professorum  ac  studiosorwn 
eloquentice,"  etc.  (Sleep  without  anxiety  :  or.  The  Cynosure 
of  professors  and  students  of  eloquence,  etc.)  The  idea 
appears  to  be  that  one  who  possesses  this  book  need  not 
have  his  sleep  disturbed  by  anxiety  about  next  Sunday's 

*The  "  Homiletical "  Notes  in  the  good  Commentaries  of  Lange, 
are  too  much  of  this  character,  and  should  be  used  only  with  great 
'^^serve  and  caution. 


GENERAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHING.    139 

sermon.  Coquerel,  who  mentions  these  two  works,  remarks 
that  it  may  be  doubted  whether  persons  would  awake  from 
this  sleep  to  be  eloquent ;  *  and  we  may  add  that  one  who 
has  determined  to  borrow  a  plan  from  such  a  book  should 
be  too  much  ashamed  of  himself  to  sleep  at  all.f 

But  while  refusing  to  appropriate  a  discourse,  or  the 
outline  of  one,  we  may  with  perfect  propriety  employ 
among  the  general  materials  of  a  discourse  thoughts  previ- 
ously read  or  heard,  provided  we  use  them  in  a  proper 
manner,  and  with  suitable  acknowledgment;  and  these 
conditions  will  be  discussed  presently. 

(2.)  After  selecting  the  text  and  subject,  shall  we  read 
about  it  ? 

If  the  text  is  not  perfectly  plain,  in  itself  and  the  con- 
text, one  certainly  ought,  at  an  early  period  of  his  pre- 
paration, to  consult  the  best  explanatory  commentaries,  for 
help  in  understanding  it. 

Other  books,  such  as  theological  treatises,  sermons  on 
the  same  text  or  on  similar  topics,  commentaries  in  the 
strict  sense  (those  which  do  not  so  much  explain  a  text,  as 
enlarge  upon  its  teachings,  e.  g.  Matthew  Henry),  etc.,  may 
be  read  with  great  profit,  though  we  do  not  borrow  any- 
thing from  them,  because  they  will  help  to  fix  the  mind  on 
the  subject,  and  often  suggest  thoughts,  which  will  be  truly 
our  own,  and  yet  would  not  have  occurred  to  us  but  for 
the  reading.  % 

But  may  we  borrow  ?  Certainly,  we  may,  and  sometimes 
ought  to  borrow.     There  are  two  extremes.     On  the  one 

*  Coquerel,  Observ.  sur  la  Predication,  p.  204.  On  the  subject  of 
♦'Skeletons,"  see  vigorous  remarks  in  Shedd,  Horn.  p.  116-122. 

\  It  is  by  no  means  designed  to  cast  unmerited  reproach  upon 
some  excellent  ministers  who  have  used  these  books  from  the  force 
of  example,  without  ever  sufficiently  reflecting  upon  the  general 
impropriety  of  the  practice. 

%  Comp.  above,  §  8. 


140    GENERAL    MATERIALS    OF    PREACHING- 

hand,  a  mistaken  desire  for  originality  and  independence, 
causes  some  able  men  to  abstain  from  reading  anything  on 
the  text  or  subject.  Such  a  man  deceives  himself,  for 
many  of  the  thoughts  which  his  own  mind  now  furnishes 
were  originally  derived  from  reading  or  hearing.  True, 
these  are  more  likely  to  have  been  digested  and  assimilated 
than  what  is  read  just  at  the  time  of  preparation.  But 
this  difference  does  not  necessarily  hold,  for  many  thoughts 
are  long  retained  by  the  memory  in  a  perfectly  crude  state, 
and  what  results  from  reading  at  the  time  should  not  be 
used  until  after  thoroughly  working  it  over  in  our  own 
mind.  And  besides  this  self-deception,  he  deprives  him- 
self of  what  would  often  prove  valuable  help  in  contem- 
plating the  subject  on  every  side,  and  presenting  it  in  the 
most  effective  manner.  The  other  extreme  is  that  of  read- 
ing instead  of  thinking,  just  cramming  the  mind  with  a 
medley  of  other  men's  thoughts,  and  constructing  a  dis- 
course out  of  these.  Such  a  method  of  preparation, 
though  often  adopted,  is  exceedingly  objectionable.  But 
can  we  avoid  the  latter  extreme  only  by  rushing  to  the 
former  ? 

There  is  surely  a  middle  course.  We  may  both  think, 
and  read.  On  most  texts  and  subjects,  think  long  and 
laboriously  before  reading  at  all  (except  it  be  the  commen- 
taries as  to  the  meaning  of  the  text).  Put  down  in  writ- 
ing some  statement  of  your  principal  thoughts,  and  make 
out  the  plan  of  the  discourse.  Afterwards,  read  whatever 
bears  upon  the  subject,  as  far  as  you  have  time,  or  se^ 
occasion,  and  in  reading,  think  for  yourself  still,  not  only 
weighing  carefully  what  the  author  says,  but  following  out 
any  trains  of  thought  which  he  may  suggest  to  your  own 
mind.  On  some  subjects,  concerning  which  we  lack  infor- 
mation, it  may  be  well  to  read  widely  before  constructing 
the  plan  of  the  sermon.  But  one  will  not  often  determine 
to  preach  upon  a  subject,  until  he  has  gained  some  general 


GENERAL  MATERIALS  OF  PREACHING.  141 

knowledge  of  it.  And  now  if  we  have  found  an  idea,  or 
remember  one  formerly  met  wdth,  which  can  be  easily 
wrought  into  our  plan  of  discourse,  and  which  would 
make  the  sermon  more  instructive,  interesting  or  impres- 
sive, why,  let  us  use  it  —  of  course  with  proper  acknowl- 
edgment. Not  only  may  minor  ideas,  illustrations,  etc.,  be 
borrowed,  but  in  rare  cases  even  one  head  of  the  discourse, 
the  other  heads  being  our  own.  The  question  is,  which 
will  be  best,  on  the  one  hand  for  your  general  improvement 
as  a  preacher,  and  on  the  other  for  the  effectiveness  of  the 
present  sermon,  that  you  should  use  this  idea,  or  should 
omit  it. 

Everything  thus  borrowed  must  have  been  fully  compre- 
hended, and  must  take  its  place  naturally  as  a  part  of  the 
discourse.  A  discourse  is  a  structure,  and  extraneous  mat- 
ters which  do  not  fit  into  it  and  subserve  its  objects,  will, 
how^ever  admirable  in  themselves,  be  offensive  and  hurtful, 
as  would  be  such  additions  to  a  dwelling-house  or  a  steam- 
engine. 

2.  In  what  cases,  and  in  wdiat  ways,  shall  one  make 
acknowledgment  of  having  borrowed  ? 

When  the  remark  is  obvious,  or  belongs  to  the  common 
stock  of  religious  ideas,  so  that  it  might  have  occurred  to 
ourselves,  although  it  happens  to  have  been  drawn  from 
another,  then  it  is  often  unnecessary  to  make  any  acknowl- 
edgment. When  the  idea  is  at  all  striking,  so  that  hearers 
would  give  any  special  credit  for  it  as  a  good  thing,  then 
we  must  not  take  a  credit  which  is  undeserved,  but  must 
in  some  way  indicate  that  the  thought  was  derived  from 
another. 

In  what  cases  shall  we  mention  the  precise  source? 
When  the  author's  name  would  give  greater  weight  to  the 
idea,  or  in  some  way  attach  interest  to  it ;  e.  g.  Bacon  or 
Bunyan,  Whitefield  or  Spurgeon.  Again,  when  we  may 
hope  thereby  to  lead  some  hearer  to  read  the  book  men- 


142  GENERAL  MATERIALS  OF  PEEACHENG. 

tioned.  Or  generally,  when  to  name  the  source  would  do 
any  good.  It  is  well  to  be  sure  that  one  can  pronounce  the 
author's  name  correctly,  or  else  to  omit  it.  Many  French 
and  German  nanies  occur  in  our  religious  literature,  and 
many  hearers  know  enough  of  those  languages  to  make 
the  effect  quite  bad,  if  the  preacher  ludicrously  mispro- 
nounces them. 

Otherwise  it  is  enough  merely  to  indicate  that  the  thought 
was  derived  from  some  source.  Avoid  a  parade  of  honesty 
about  acknowledging.  Avoid,  too,  an  ostentatious  display 
of  wide  reading.  Let  the  acknowledgment  interrupt  as 
little  as  possible  the  flow  of  thought  —  detract  as  little  as 
possible  from  the  interest  which  the  idea  is  calculated  to 
awaken.  If  it  would  decidedly  interrupt  or  detract,  then 
omit  the  acknowledgment, —  and  the  thing  borrowed.  In 
general,  the  method  of  acknowledging  calls  for  the  exercise 
of  judgment,  and  good  taste.  Without  formality  or  set 
phrases,  and  with  graceful  simplicity,  state,  indicate,  or 
even  merely  intimate,  that  the  idea  was  derived  from  some 
other  person. 

It  is  certainly  important  that  on  the  whole  subject  of 
borrowing,  one  should  have  just  principles ;  and  that  he 
should  early  in  life  establish  such  principles,  and  form 
correct  habits  from  the  beginning.  Otherwise,  there  will 
either  be  a  wrong  practice  continued  through  life,  with 
very  injurious  results  to  a  man's  character  and  influence, 
or,  when  he  comes  to  see  more  clearly,  there  will  be  much 
to  regret  in  his  past  course. 


/* 


CHAPTER  Y. 

SPECIAL   MATERIALS  —  EXPLANAriON. 

I  1.  Explanation  of  Texts,  including  Exegesis,  Narration, and 
Description.  ^  2.  Explanation  of  Subjects,  including  Defi- 
nition, Division,  Exemplification,  Comparison. 

THE  materials  of  preaching  are  obviously  boundless. 
To  collect  in  general,  by  observation,  reading  and 
reflection,  and  then  to  select  and  adapt  to  the  design  of 
each  particular  discourse,  is  the  preacher's  great  task.  And 
not  only  the  character  of  the  materials,  but  the  method  of 
handling  them,  must  vary  indefinitely,  according  to  the 
design  of  the  sermon.  But  certain  special  classes  of 
materials  are  of  such  importance,  and  their  proper  treat- 
ment of  such  difficulty,  as  to  justify  a  separate  discussion. 
The  classes  here  selected  for  that  purpose,  and  treated  in 
successive  chapters,  are  the  materials  of  Explanation,  of 
Proof,  of  Illustration,  and  of  Application.  This  is  not 
presented  as  a  scientific  classification  of  materials.  It  by 
no  means  embraces  all,  and  its  departments  sometimes 
overlap.  Thus  illustration  may  be  employed  to  explain, 
to  prove,  or  to  impress ;  application  may  embrace  explana- 
tion, proof,  and  persuasion ;  and  certain  processes  which 
are  always  classed  under  explanation,  as  narration  and 
description,  are  often  used  at  the  same  time,  and  even 
mainly,  for  other  than  explanatory  ends.  But  it  is  thought 
that  a  scientific  classification  would  here  be  less  useful  than 
the  practical  discussion  of  certain  leading  objects  accord- 

143 


144  EXPLANATION. 

ing  to  which   the  preacher   must  invent   and  handle  his 
materials.* 

There  is  in  preaching  very  frequent  need  of  Explanation. 
Numerous  passages  of  Scripture  are  not  understood,  or 
are  even  misunderstood,  by  our  hearers ;  and  many  have 
become  so  accustomed  to  passing  over  these,  as  to  be  no 
longer  aware  that  they  present  any  difficulty.  Some  of 
the  most  important  doctrines  of  the  Bible  are  in  general 
very  imperfectly  understood ;  those  who  receive  them  need 
clearer  views  of  what  they  profess  to  believe,  and  those 
who  object  to  them  are  often  in  fact  objecting  to  something 
very  different  from  the  real  doctrine.  The  plan  of  salva- 
tion is  seldom  comprehended  till  one  is  really  willing  to 
conform  to  it,  so  that  there  is  constantly  arising  new  occa- 
sion for  answering  the  great  question,  "What  must  I  do  to 
be  saved  ? "  And  a  thousand  questions  as  to  what  is  true 
and  what  is  right  in  the  practical  conduct  of  life,  perplex 
devout  minds,  and  call  for  explanation.  Preaching  ought 
to  be  not  merely  convincing  and  persuasive,  but  eminently 
instructive.  AVe  often  belabor  men  with  arguments  and 
appeals,  when  they  are  much  more  in  need  of  practical 
and  simple  explanations,  as  regards  what  to  do,  and  how 
to  do  it.  And  while  some  persons  present  may  have  repeat- 
edly heard  us  explain  certain  important  matters,  we  must 
not  forget  that  there  are  others,  children  growing  up, 
strangers  moving  in,  converts  entering  the  church,  to 
whom  such  explanations  will  be  new,  and  are  in  the 
highest  degree  necessary. 

But  just  here  the  inexperienced  minister  may  profit  by 

*  A  full  and  in  general  valuable  discussion  of  Invention  may  be 
found  in  Day's  Art  of  Discourse,  p.  42-207.  He  classifies  materials 
according  to  the  four  objects  of  explanation,  confirmation,  excitation, 
a.Tid  persuasion.  His  treatment  of  Explanation  is  the  most  elaborate 
in  existence  (p.  57-111),  and  although  too  formal  in  some  respects, 
it  will  be  found  instructive  and  suggestive.   See  also  Vinet,  p.  153-169 


EXPLANATION.  145 

several  homely  cautions.  Do  not  attempt  to  explain  t^hat 
is  not  assuredly  true.  One  sometimes  finds  great  difficulty 
in  working  out  an  explanation  of  a  supposed  fact  or  prin- 
ciple, because  it  is  really  not  true.  Do  not  undertake  to 
explain  ivhat  you  do  not  understand.  Oh  the  insufferable 
weariness  of  listening  to  a  man  who  does  this !  And  in 
preaching  as  well  as  elsewhere,  it  happens  so  often  as  to  be 
ridiculous,  if  it  were  not  mournful.  How  can  the  house- 
wife cook  w^hat  has  never  been  caught?  How  can  the 
preacher  explain  what  he  does  not  understand?  Never 
try  to  explain  what  cannot  he  explained.  Some  things 
taught  in  the  Bible  are  in  their  essence  incomprehensible ; 
as,  for  example,  the  nature  of  the  Trinity,  or  the  coex- 
istence of  absolute  Divine  predestination  with  human 
freedom  and  accountability.  In  such  a  case  it  is  very 
important  to  explain  just  what  the  Scriptures  really  do 
teach,  so  as  to  remove  misapprehensions ;  and  it  may 
sometimes  be  worth  while  to  present  any  remote  analogies 
in  other  spheres  of  existence,  so  as  perhaps  to  diminish  the 
hearer's  unwillingness  to  receive  the  doctrine;  but  attempts 
to  explain  the  essential  difficulty  must  necessarily  fail,  and 
the  failure  will  react  so  as  only  to  strengthen  doubt  and 
opposition.  Do  not  waste  time  in  explaining  what  does  not 
need  explanation."^^  A  conspicuous  instance  is  the  nature 
of  faith.  Men  frequently  complain  that  they  do  not  under- 
stand what  it  really  is  to  believe,  and  preachers  are  con- 
stantly laboring  to  explain.  But  the  complaint  is  in 
many  cases  a  mere  excuse  for  rejection  or  delay,  and  the 
real  difficulty  is  in  all  cases  a  lack  of  disposition  to  believe. 
Elaborate  explanations  do  not  lessen  this  indisposition,  do 
but  strengthen  the  supposed  excuse,  and  may  even  embar- 
rass the  anxious  inquirer  with  the  notion  that  there  is 
something  very  mysterious  about  faith,  when  it  is  in  fact 

*  Conip.  Vinet,  Horn.  p.  166 
13 


146  EXPLANATION. 

SO  simple  as  not  to  admit  of  being  explained.  Our  main 
duty  is  to  tell  the  people  what  to  believe,  and  why  they 
should  believe  it. 

§  1.       EXPLANATION   OF   TEXTS. 

To  explain  the  Scriptures  would  seem  to  be  among  the 
primary  functions  of  the  preacher.*  And  there  will  often 
be  occasion  to  explain,  not  merely  the  text  of  the  sermon, 
but  various  other  passages  of  Scripture  which  may  be  intro- 
duced into  the  discussion.  The  power  of  making  such  ex- 
planations attractive  as  well  as  clear,  will  of  course  depend 
largely  upon  the  preacher's  turn  of  mind.  But  the  most 
gifted  in  respect  of  this  important  task  should  seek  constant 
improvement,  and  they  who  have  great  difficulty  must  put 
forth  diligent  and  hopeful  efforts  to  overcome  it.  What 
nobler  work  than  that  of  *'  opening  "  the  Scriptures,  as 
Paul  did  at  Thessalonica  ?  (Acts  17  :  3.) 

The  EXEGESIS  of  texts,  as  the  process  by  which  the 
preacher  himself  comes  to  understand  them,  has  already 
received  our  attention,  f  Pulpit  exegesis,  or  exposition,  is 
in  certain  respects  a  different  thing.  We  have  here,  save 
in  exceptional  cases,  to  present  results  and  not  processes. 
We  must  omit  various  matters,  which  have  perhaps  greatly 
interested  ourselves,  because  they  would  not  interest  the 
people,  or  do  not  pertain  to  the  object  of  the  present  dis- 
course. Preachers  sometimes  allow  themselves,  in  the 
introduction  to  the  sermon  or  as  a  digression,  to  give  long 
explanations  of  something  in  a  passage  or  its  connection, 
which  has  no  bearing  on  their  subject,  and  thus  impairs 
unity,  and  distracts  attention.  There  must  of  course  be  no 
parade  of  acquaintance  with  the  original  languages,  and 
there  should  be  no  morbid  fear  of  being  charged  with  ^uch 

*Comp,  on  Expos.  Sermons,  Part  II,  chap.  3. 
f  Ab:ve,  chap.  2. 


EXPLANATION.  147 

parade.  Commentaries  may  be  mentioned  if  the  people 
know  something  of  them,  and  wouM  thereby  be  more 
readily  satisfied,  or  if  it  is  desirable  to  l.i-ing  good  popular 
authors  to  their  notice.  To  repeat  lists  of  strange  and 
high-sounding  names  in  favor  of  this  or  that  interpretation, 
is  always  useless,  and  is  in  general  a  very  pitiful  display  of 
cheap  erudition,  which  with  the  help  of  certain  books  may 
all  be  gotten  up  at  second  hand  in  a  few  minutes.  One 
may  very  easily  indicate,  without  any  array  of  authorities, 
that  this  is  the  view  of  the  best  writers,  of  some  good  com- 
mentators, etc.  The  great  matter  is,  to  take  the  results  of 
the  most  careful  investigation  in  our  power,  select  from  them 
such  points  as  are  appropriate,  and  present  these  clearly, 
briefly,  and  if  possible  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  interesting. 
Sometimes  the  text,  or  another  passage  introduced,  may  be 
amply  and  adrairably  explained  by  a  few  words ;  but  such 
words  do  not  come  of  themselves  —  they  result  from  close 
thinking,  and  careful  choice  of  expressions.  Sometimes 
passages  may  be  introduced  in  such  a  connection,  as  with- 
out a  word  of  explanation  to  give  them  new  meaning  and 
preciousness.  It  is  a  fault  in  many  able  ministers,  that 
they  comparatively  neglect  to  bring  in  and  explain  the  ap- 
posite sayings  of  Scripture  which  would  both  give  and  bor- 
row light.  And  however  congregations  may  shrink  from 
elaborate  exegesis  or  bungling  and  tedious  attempts  to  ex- 
plain, they  will  always  welcome  the  felicitous  introduction, 
and  quick,  vivid  elucidation  of  passages  from  God's  Word. 
Narration  has  in  preaching  a  peculiar  character. 
Recent  works  on  Khetoric  treat  of  it  almost  exclusively  as 
practised  in  historical  writing  and  the  like.*  Ancient 
writers  treat  of  oratorical  narration,  and  are  therefore  more 
valuable  for  our  purpose,t  though  relating  chiefly  to  the 

*  Thus  Day's  Art  of  Discourse,  and  Bain's  Rhetoric,  each  of 
which  contains  a  good  discussion  from  that  point  of  view. 

■f  Particularly  Arist,  Rhet.  Ill,  16,  and  Quintil.  IV,  2,  which  will 
be  found  very  suggestive. 


148  EXPLANATIL  I^. 

narrative  in  judicial  oratory.  The  preacier  of  course  nar- 
rates as  a  speaker,  and  deals  mainly  with  Scripture  history. 
A  speaker  must  always  subordinate  narration  to  the  object 
of  his  discourse,  the  conviction  or  persuasion  which  he 
wishes  to  effect.*  He  must  not  elaborate  or  enlarge  upon 
some  narrative  merely  because  in  itself  interesting,  nor 
follow  the  story  step  by  step,  according  to  its  own  laws. 
**  In  demonstrative  speeches  the  narration  is  not  continuous, 
but  given  in  scattered  portions ;  for  one  must  go  over  the 
actions  out  of  which  the  speech  arises ;  for  a  speech  is  a 
kind  of  compound,  having  one  portion,  indeed,  independent 
of  art,  and  another  portion  originating  in  art."  That  is, 
the  facts  are  independent  of  the  speaker,  but  he  breaks 
them  up  and  presents  them  according  to  his  object. 
"  Owing  to  this,  there  are  times  when  one  ought  not  to 
narrate  every  fact  successively;  because  this  mode  of  expo- 
sition is  difficult  to  remember.  The  one  style  of  narration 
is  too  simple ;  the  other  has  the  grace  of  variety,  and  is  not 
so  void  of  elegance.  But  what  you  have  to  do  is  to 
awaken  the  recollection  of  facts  well  known ;  on  which 
account  many  subjects  will  stand  in  no  need  of  narration 
—  supposing,  for  instance,  you  would  praise  Achilles,  be- 
cause all  are  acquainted  with  his  actions  —  but  you  must 
simply  use  the  actions  without  narration.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  one  wishes  to  praise  Critias,  it  is  necessary  to  narrate ; 
for  not  many  are  acquainted  with  his  exploits."  f 

And  so  when  we  preach  with  reference  to  the  minor 
and  less  familiar  personages  of  Scripture,  it  is  proper 
enough  to  narrate  all  the  facts  concerning  them.  But 
when  it  is  one  of  the  great  characters  we  must  choose 
between  two  courses.  We  may  select  the  salient  or 
characteristic  points  of  his  history,  and  so  narrate  these  as 

*  Narratio  est  rei  factae uiilia  ad perauadendum  expositio 

Quintil.  IV,  2,  31. 

fArist.  Rhet.  Ill,  16,  1-3. 


EXPLANATION.  149 

to  exhibit  the  chief  lessons  of  that  history,  introducing 
such  details  as  are  to  the  purpose,  and  rigorously  omitting 
all  others.     Thus  the  history  of  Joseph,  of  Job,  of  John 
the  Baptist,  may  be  conveniently  treated.     In  such  a  case, 
every  speaker  will  mention  or  enlarge  upon  different  parts 
of  the  history,  according  to  his  particular  object;  as  Ste- 
phen's speech,  and  that  of  Paul  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia, 
sketch  verv  differently  the  history  of  Israel  ;  and  as  Paul 
in  the  two*  speeches  which  tell  the  story  of  his  conversion, 
expands  in  each  of  them  certain  matters  which  in  the  other 
are  but  slightly  touched,  adapting  the  narration  to  the  char- 
acter and  wants  of  his  audience.*    But  it  is  generally  better 
to  choose  some  one  event  of  the  man's  history,  or  some  one 
trait  of  his  character,  and  narrate  only  what  bears  upon 
that.     In  preaching  upon  the   meekness  of   Moses,  there 
would  be  occasion  to  state  briefly  those  circumstances  of 
his  training  and  career  which  were  particularly  unfavor- 
able to  the  development  of  meekness,  and  then  to  narrate, 
with  vivid  touches,  the  leading  instances  in  which  his  meek- 
ness was  exhibited,  as  well  as  those  in  which  it  temporarily 
failed  ;  and  the  discourse  would  properly  close  with  a  some- 
what extended  application  of  the  whole  matter  to  ourselves. 
In  this  way  the  history  of  Moses  would  be  much  more  im- 
pressively reproduced,  than  if  one  should  attempt  an  out- 
line of  the  whole. 

Narration  is  usually  given  in  the  introduction  to  the 
sermon.  In  so  doing  special  pains,  should  be  taken  not  to 
have  it  too  long,  not  to  wander  into  parts  of  the  story  which 
have  no  bearing  upon  the  design  of  the  discourse,  and  not 
to  pause,  except  in  very  rare  cases,  for  remarks  upon  outside 
topics  which  the  narrative  may  suggest.  There  is  especial 
danger  here  of  violating  the  laws  of  unity  and  proportion. 
Besides  the  instances  in  which  some  history  in  the  Bible 

*Comp.  Acts,  ctap.  7  M'th  chap.  13,  and  chap.  22  with  chap.  26. 
13* 


150  EXPLANATION. 

IS  our  theme,  there  will  be  constant  occasion  to  derive  illus* 
tration  from  Scripture  history,  and  great  demand  for  skill 
in  the  brief  and  interesting  narration  of  events  thus  em- 
ployed. Happy  the  preacher  who  can  in  this  way  keep 
ever  fresh  in  the  minds  of  his  hearers  those  beautiful  and 
sacred  stories,  which  are  not  only  sweet  to  the  heart  of 
childhood  and  full  of  instruction  to  youth,  but  which,  when 
rightly  contemplated,  assume  new  interest  and  meaning  at 
every  stage  of  life. 

It  is  a  rather  common  fault  in  the  pulpit  to  narrate  in  a 
declamatory  way.  The  preacher  has  become  excited,  and 
he  states  a  plain  fact,  or  tells  a  simple  story,  with  such 
vehemence  and  boisterousness  as  to  be  extremely  incongru- 
ous. Quintilian  keenly  satirizes  those  who  think  it  beneath 
their  dignity  to  set  forth  facts  in  every-day  language,  who 
do  not  seem  to  themselves  eloquent,  unless  they  have  thrown 
everything  into  agitation  by  boisterous  vociferation,  and 
instead  of  simply  narrating,  imagine  that  they  have  here  a 
field  for  showing  off,  and  "inflect  the  voice,  set  back  the 
neck,  and  fling  the  arm  against  the  side,  and  riot  in  every 
variety  of  ideas,  words,  and  style."  *  Let  us  learn  the 
lesson.f 

Description  is  usually  a  necessary  part  of  narration,  sep- 
arate scenes  of  the  narrative  being  to  some  extent  described. 
There  is  also  frequent  occasion  to  describe  Scripture  scenes 
apart  from  their  connection  in  the  narrative,  as  in  the  intro- 
duction to  a  sermon,  in  the  employment  of  historical  illustra- 
tions from  Scripture,  etc.  And  while  we  speak  here  of  nar- 
ration and  description  only  as  regards  the  events  and  scenes 
of  the  Bible  history,  it  is  obvious  that  the  same  skill  may  be 
applied  to  that  great  variety  of  illustrative  matter  from  every 
other  source,  which  must  be  vividly  narrated  or  described 

*  Quintil.  IV,  2,  37-0. 

f  As  to  narration  in  preaching,  comp.  on  Historical  Subjects,  chap. 
8,  I  3,  and  on  Expository  Sermons,  Part  II,  chap  3. 


EXPLANATION.  151 

ID  order  to  make  any  impression.  A  leading  American 
preacher  has  said  that  "he  who  would  hold  the  ear  of  the 
people,  must  either  tell  stories,  or  paint  pictures." 

Power  of  description  is  of  course  partly  a  natural  gift ; 
but  many  intelligent  men  will  marvel  and  lament  that  they 
cannot  describe,  when  they  have  never  fairly  tried  —  never 
given  themselves  any  general  training  in  that  respect,  nor 
ever  really  studied  any  one  scene  or  object  which  they 
attempted  to  describe.  Such  men  are  aware  that  they 
cannot  work,  out  an  argument  without  much  previous 
thought,  but  seem  not  aware  that  corresponding  effort  is 
necessary  in  order  to  achieve  a  good  description. 

He  who  would  describe  anything,  must  have  seeii  it ; 
not  necessarily  with  bodily  vision,  but  w^ith  the  mind's 
eye.  He  must  begin,  then,  with  gaining  correct  informa- 
tion about  the  scene  or  object ;  and  this  information  must 
extend,  if  possible,  to  details.  As  regards  Scripture  scenes, 
there  is  often  need  of  a  familiar  acquaintance  with  Biblical 
Geography,  and  with  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
Jews.  While  gathering  such  information,  and  after  doing 
so,  he  must  fasten  his  mind  upon  the  scene,  so  that  the 
imagination  may  realize  it ;  he  must  look  at  it  as  he  would 
at  a  landscape  or  a  painting,  first  surveying  the  whole, 
then  inspecting  the  most  interesting  details,  and  afterwards 
comprising  all  in  a  general  view.  This  should  be  kept  up, 
with  the  point  of  view  varied,  and  repeated  effort  to 
imagine,  till  the  whole  scene  stands  out  clear  and  vivid 
before  the  eye  of  the  mind ;  only  then  is  he  prepared  to 
describe  it. 

Remember  now  that  a  speaker  is  not  to  describe  as  the 
writer  of  a  poem,  a  romance,  or  a  book  of  travels  might 
do,  but  is  to  make  the  description  brief,  and  subordinate 
to  the  objects  of  his  discourse ;  we  may  thus  perceive,  in 
a  general  way,  how  the  description  should  be  managed. 
The  outlines  of  the  picture  should  be  rapidly  drawn,  and 


152  EXPLANATION. 

may  be  rude,  provided  they  are  distinct.  Then  certain 
prominent  or  characteristic  points  of  the  scene  must  be 
presented.  And  with  some  of  these  there  should  be  given 
a  few  of  the  most  suggestive  details,  which  will  arouse  the 
hearer's  imagination  to  fill  up  the  picture.  In  this  lies  the 
great  art  of  description,  especially  for  speakers — to  stim- 
ulate the  hearer's  imagination  into  seeing  for  himself. 
Sometimes  there  are  a  few  details  so  characteristic,  that 
they  need  only  the  slightest  indication  of  outline  to  make 
a  picture ;  as  in  a  caricature,  one  or  two  peculiar  features, 
somewhat  exaggerated,  and  a  few  rude  lines  beside,  will  be 
more  amusing  than  a  finished  picture,  because  more  sug- 
gestive. And  even  where  no  remarkably  striking  details 
present  themselves,  one  may  contrive  slight  touches  here 
and  there,  which  will  give  life  to  the  whole.  If  these  are 
not  aflbrded  by  our  knowledge  of  the  facts,  they  may  be 
avowedly  imagined,  care  being  taken  to  have  them  suggest 
only  what  will  harmonize  with  the  facts.  Thus  in  that 
remarkable  home-scene  at  Bethany,  after  describing  Mary 
seated  at  Jesus'  feet,  and  hearing  his  word,  one  might 
imagine  Martha  as  coming  to  the  door  of  the  room,  her 
face  heated  with  excitement  and  vexation,  and  after  vainly 
striving  to  catch  Mary's  eye  and  call  her  forth,  at  length 
stepping  straight  to  the  Master  himself,  with  her  complain- 
ing request ;  and  this  slight  glance  at  her  before  she  enters 
will  help  to  realize  the  scene. 

Avoid  elaborate  description.  The  preacher  is  expected 
always  to  cherish  so  practical  a  design,  and  feel  such 
absorbing  earnestness,  as  not  to  have  time  for  painting 
finished  pictures.  Hearers  of  good  taste  will  always  feel 
them  to  be  out  of  place.  As  regards  the  temptation  to 
give  high-wrought  descriptions,  because  it  will  show  one's 
talent  in  that  respect,  this  must  of  course  be  resisted,  like 
all  other  temptations  to  display.  But  we  cannot  turn  to 
the  be.«t  account  the  historical  portions  of  Scripture,  nor 


EXPLANATION.  153 

use  to  advantage  other  narrative  and  pictorial  illustration, 
without  cultivating  our  powers  of  narration  and  descrip- 
tion ;  and  he  who  will  patiently  strive,  under  the  guidance 
of  correct  principles,  first  to  see  clearly,  and  then  to 
describe  suggestively,  may  ere  long  surprise  himself  by 
the  facility  and  pleasure  with  which  he  can  bring  out,  in 
not  many  words,  some  story  or  scene  from  the  Bible.* 

§  2.      EXPLANATION   OF    SUBJECTS. 

Here  again  there  will  be  included,  not  merely  the 
general  subject  of  a  discourse,  but  any  other  ideas  which 
enter  into  the  discussion.  Both  the  former  and  the  latter 
must  often  require  explanation.  Many  matters,  of  truth 
and  duty,  are  obscure  and,  without  help,  practically  unin- 
telligible to  the  popular  mind ;  many  questions  are  sadly 
perplexing.  To  answer  such  inquiries,  to  clear  up  diffi- 
culties, and  make  as  plain  as  possible  the  way  of  truth  and 
the  path  of  duty,  is,  as  well  as  the  explanation  of  Scrip- 
ture, an  important  part  of  the  preacher's  work. 

One  means  of  explaining  subjects  is  by  Definition. 
"  Definition  is  defined  by  the  etymology  of  the  word.  It 
marks  the  limits  of  an  idea.  To  define  definition  posi- 
tively, we  say  that  it  teaches  of  what  elements  an  idea,  as 
a  whole,  is  composed.  It  consists  in  bringing  together 
many  general  ideas,  of  which  one  is  limited  by  the  others. 
When  the  idea,  so  to  speak,  is  fortified,  entrenched,  so  that 
on  all  sides  it  repels  ideas  which  would  mix  themselves 
with  it,  the  object  is  defined.  We  must  not  confound  defi- 
nition and  judgment.     Definition  does  but  verify  identity; 

judgment  expresses  a  relation Definition  aims  to 

make  us  know;  judgment,  to  appreciate.  Very  often, 
however,  definition  appreciates,  and   involves  judgment; 

*  Comp.  on  Expos.  Preaching,  Part  II,  chap.  3,  and  on  Elegance 
of  Style,  Part  III,  chap.  4.  Some  good  suggestions  as  to  Descrip- 
tion, are  found  in  Bain's  Rhetoric,  p.  153  flf. 


154  EXPLANATION. 

and  judgment  is  equivalent  to  a  partial  definition.  AVe 
must  not,  however,  confound  with  definition,  those  judg- 
ments which  give  force  to  a  characteristic  of  an  object, 
and  are  only  designed  to  excite  toward  it  such  or  such  a 
sentiment.     Examples : 

"  '  Kivers  are  roads  that  move  and  carry  us  whither  we 
would  go.' 

** '  Hypocrisy  is  a  homage  which  vice  pays  to  virtue.' 

"  'Time  is  the  treasure  of  the  poor.' 

"'A  tomb  is  a  monument  placed  on  the  boundary 
between  two  worlds.' 

"  *  Love  is  the  fulfilling  of  the  law.'  " 

"  When  the  notion  of  the  attribute  does  not  exhaust  that 
of  the  subject,  and  one  cannot  be  put  indifferently  for  the 

other,  we  have  not  a  definition,  we  have  a  judgment 

A  definition  is  indeed  a  judgment,  but  a  judgment  which 
contains  or  begets  all  the  judgments  which  at  any  time 
may  be  pronounced  upon  an  object.  And  reciprocally,  by 
combining  all  the  judgments  which  at  any  time  may  be 
pronounced  on  an  object,  we  have  a  definition."  * 

Vinet  proceeds  to  give  examples  of  definition,  including 
one  which  is  very  often  called  a  definition,  but  surely  with- 
out propriety:  "  Faith  is  the  substance  of  things  hoped  for, 
the  evidence  of  things  not  seen."  (Heb.  11  :  1.)  Other 
judgments  may  be  pronounced  upon  faith,  besides  this. 
Faith  is  the  substance  of  things  hoped  for,  etc.,  just  as 
love  is  the  fulfilling  of  the  law.  It  may  be  said  that  faith 
is  the  means  of  union  with  Christ,  but  that  is  not  defining 
faith.  In  fact,  as  we  have  before  observed,  it  scarcely  needs 
definition,  or  admits  of  it. 

We  may  sometimes  most  readily  define  an  idea  by  con- 
necting it  with  another  idea,  either  in  the  way  of  distinc- 
tion, or  of  comparison.f    And  instead  of,  or  in  addition  to 

*  Vinet,  Horn.  p.  lGl-3.  f  See  Vinet,  p.  166. 


EXPLANATION.  155 

definition,  it  is  often  well  to  employ  exemplification,  for 
which  see  below. 

"  Definition  is  not  only  a  means  of  perspicuity,  an  ele- 
ment of  instruction,  the  basis  of  argumentation ;  it  is  often 
the  beginning  of  proof.  Demonstration,  at  least,  is  firm 
and  sure  in  proportion  to  the  exactness  and  clearness  of 
the  definition."  Every  one  has  observed  how  important 
it  is  in  beginning  a  controversial  discussion,  public  or  pri- 
vate, that  the  question  should  be  exactly  defined ;  other- 
wise confusion  of  ideas  is  inevitable.  Now  it  is  equally, 
though  not  so  obviously  important,  in  conducting  a  dis- 
cussion alone,  that  one  should  clearly  define  to  himself  the 
subject  in  hand.  In  fact  it  is  more  important  in  this  case, 
because  controversy  will  sooner  or  later  force  the  parties 
to  perceive  that  they  have  not  clearly  understood  the  ques- 
tion, or  understood  it  in  the  same  way,  while  the  solitary 
thinker,  or  the  unanswered  speaker,  may  remain  perma- 
nently involved  in  the  confusion  or  error  produced  by  his 
lack  of  well-defined  conceptions  at  the  outset.  And  the 
same  thing  applies  to  the  definition  of  leading  terms.  But 
while  we  must  always  define  to  ourselves,  it  is  not  always 
necessary  that  we  should  define  to  the  audience.  The  pro- 
position of  the  subject,  if  felicitous,  may  often  be  suffi- 
ciently perspicuous  and  precise ;  or  we  may  see  that  the 
discussion  itself  will  most  eflfectually  give  clear  and  definite 
views  of  the  subject.  In  all  definitions  stated,  we  should 
eschew  formality,  and  "  avoid  too  subtle  distinctions  and 
classifications,  which  assume  a  great  habit  of  abstraction, 
and  an  exact  knowledge  of  language  on  the  part  of  the 
hearer."  * 

A  second  means  of  explaining  ideas  is  by  Division. 
But  the  methods  of  dividing  a  subject,  and  of  stating 
divisions,  can  be  most  conveniently  examined  when  we 
come  to  discuss  the  arrangement  of  discourse.f 

*Vinet,  p.  164-5.  fPart  II,  chap.  2. 


156  EXPLANATION. 

Exemplification  is  often  necessary,  and  almost  ahvay? 
useful,  in  the  work  of  explanation.  The  common  mind 
does  not  readily  apprehend  general  definitions,  expressed 
in  abstract  terms;  and  even  to  the  most  cultivated  thinkers 
an  idea  will  become  more  vivid  and  interesting,  when  there 
is  added  to  a  precise  definition  some  apposite  example.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  present  to  a  popular  audience  a  clear 
distinction  between  pride  and  vanity,  in  the  way  of  defini- 
tion ;  but  by  supposing  certain  circumstances,  and  showing 
how  the  proud  man  would  act,  and  how  the  vain  man,  in 
such  a  case,  or  by  taking  up  some  particular  action  of  a 
well-known  character,  and  inquiring  whether  the  motive 
here  was  pride  or  vanity,  we  may  speedily  make  the  differ- 
ence plain.  So  instead  of  undertaking  to  explain  faith, 
one  may  describe  a  believer ;  or  in  addition  to  stating  in 
general  terms  what  will  make  a  Christian  happy,  may  give 
an  ideal  portraiture  of  a  Christian  who  was  happy.*  And 
still  more  useful  are  examples  from  real  life.  Every  preacher 
turns  to  account  in  this  way  his  observation  of  life,  and 
some  do  so  with  very  great  effectiveness.  But  besides  what 
we  have  personally  observed,  we  have  the  wide  fields  of 
history,  and  especially  of  Scripture  history,  from  which  to 
derive  examples.  In  selecting  those  to  be  used,  the 
preacher  must  inquire  not  only  what  is  most  apposite,  but 
what  will  be  most  intelligible  and  interesting  to  the  par- 
ticular audience,  and  what  he  himself  can  most  effectively 
handle.  Historical  examples  which  would  thrill  one  con- 
gregation, will  make  but  little  impression  on  another,  not 
being  familiar  to  them,  or  not  linked  to  them  by  any  ties 
of  sympathy.  In  this,  as  in  most  respects,  examples  from 
Bible  history  are  the  best.  They  are  more  generally 
familiar  than  most  others,  and  if  any  time  be  consumed  in 
bringing  the  example  vividly  before  the  hearers,  it  is  time 

*  Interestirg  and  instructive  examples  of  this  kind  may  be  found 
iu  Jeter's  "  Christian  Mirror."     New  York,  Sheldon  &  Co. 


EXPLANATION.  157 

well  spent,  because  it  promotes  general  acquaintance  with 
the  Scriptures.* 

Among  the  commonest  and  most  useful  means  of  expla- 
nation, is  Comparison.  With  this  may  be  classed  Con- 
trast, and  also  Analogy,  which  depends  on  a  resemblance, 
not  in  objects  themselves,  but  in  their  respective  relations  to 
certain  other  objects.  Analogy,  however,  is  more  frequently 
employed  for  the  purpose  of  proof,  and  will  be  considered 
in  the  next  chapter.     Contrast  needs  no  special  remark.f 

The  great  mass  of  our  Lord's  Parables  are  comparisons. 
"  The  kingdom  of  heaven  is  like,''  etc.  "  Unto  what  shall 
we  likeii  this  generation  ? "  Some  of  them  are  thrown  into 
the  form  of  narrative  ;  but  others  are  mere  statements  of 
comparison,  and  he  uses  many  striking  comparisons  which 
are  never  called  parables.  The  comparison  of  his  coming 
to  that  of  a  thief  (Matt.  24  :  43-4)  is  an  instructive  exam- 
ple of  the  fact  that  comparison  is  all  the  more  striking 
where  we  have  one  point  of  resemblance  between  objects  or 
events  in  other  respects  very  different.  Several  of  the  par- 
ables are  rather  cases  of  Exemplification  than  of  Compar- 
ison ;  as,  for  instance,  the  Rich  Man  preparing  to  take  his 
ease,  the  Pharisee  and  the  Publican,  the  Good  Samaritan. 
Many  of  them  are  introduced  for  other  purposes  in  addition 
to  that  of  explanation.  But  they  are  chiefly  comparisons, 
and  are  mainly  used  to  explain.  They  thus  impressively 
exhibit  to  us  the  importance  of  explanation,  and  the  valuo 
of  comparison  as  a  means  of  effecting  it.  The  same  high 
example  reminds  us  how  desirable  it  is  to  derive  our  com* 
parisous  from  matters  familiar  to  our  hearers.J 

*Comp.  Vinet,  p.  167,  and  see  below  on  Illustration,  chap.  7. 
f  See  Day's  Art  of  Discourse,  p.  104-9. 
J  See  further  on  Illustration,  chap.  7. 
14 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ARGUMENT. 

Importance  of  Argument  in  Preaching,  g  1.  Preliminaries  to 
Argument  —  Burden  of  Proof,  etc.  ^2.  Principal  Varieties 
OF  Argument.  A.  A  Priori.  B.  From  Testimony.  C.  Induc- 
tion. D.  From  Analogy.  E.  Deduction  from  Established 
Truths.  F.  Certain  Forms  of  Argument.  §3.  Refutation. 
g  4.  Order  of  Arguments.  ^  5.  General  Suggestions  as  to 
Argument. 

ARGUMENT,  in  the  logical,  and  at  the  same  time 
popular,  sense  of  the  term,  forms  a  very  large  and 
very  important  department  of  the  materials  of  preaching. 
There  are  preachers,  it  is  true,  who  seem  to  consider  that 
they  have  no  occasion  for  reasoning,  that  everything  is  to 
be  accomplished  by  authoritative  assertion  and  impassioned 
appeal.  And  this  notion  is  not  new ;  for  w^e  find  Aristotle 
complaining  that  previous  writers  on  Rhetoric  had  con- 
cerned themselves  only  with  the  means  of  persuasion  by 
appeals  to  feeling  and  prejudice.  But  preachers  really 
have  great  use  for  argument.  There  are  many  gainsayers 
and  doubters  to  be  convinced,  both  as  regards  the  truth  of 
Christianity,  and  the  truth  of  what  we  represent  to  be  its 
teachings.  There  are  many  who  in  both  respects  believe, 
but  whose  religious  aifections  and  activity  might  be  not  a 
little  quickened  by  convincing  and  impressive  proofs  that 
these  things  are  so.  "  Even  in  the  cases  in  which  reason- 
ing seems  superfluous,  it  may  be  greatly  useful,  since  its 
object  is  not  so  much  to  prove  what  is  not  yet  believed,  as 
to  fill  the  mind  with  the  evidence,  and  if  we  may  so  speak, 

168 


ARGUMENT.  159 

to  multiply  the  brightness  of  truth."  *  And  besides,  there 
is  in  Christian  countries  a  multitude  of  people  -svho  say 
they  believe,  because  they  do  not  disbelieve  or  question, 
whose  minds  remain  in  a  negative  state  towards  the  gospel, 
which  is  often  the  most  fatal  form  of  unbelief.  Argument, 
as  to  the  truth  and  value  and  claims  of  the  gospel,  as  to 
the  peril  and  guilt  of  their  position,  is  one  of  the  means  by 
which  we  must  strive  to  bring  them,  through  the  special 
blessing  of  the  Spirit,  into  some  real,  some  operative  belief. 
"Argument  is  also  often  useful  in  arousing  the  feelings. 
The  mind  becomes  interested  in  a  truth  which  is  capable 

of  clear  proof. The  most  successful  preachers,  as 

instruments  of  producing  immediate  conversion,  the  most 
successful  revival  preachers,  are  often  at  first  severely  argu- 
mentative. They  thus  gain  power  to  bear  down  upon  the 
conscience  and  heart."  f 

Men  delight  in  argument — not  in  its  forms,  but  in  its 
reality.  You  will  see  a  light  in  the  faces  of  unlettered 
rustics,  when  an  argument  drawn  from  matters  within  their 
range  of  thought  or  suited  to  their  taste,  is  presented  in 
terms  so  plain,  so  vigorous,  so  interesting,  that  they  take 
hold  of  it  with  ease,  and  feel  all  its  force  and  impressive- 
ness.  Some  forms  of  error,  which  exalt  the  intellectual  at 
the  expense  of  the  spiritual,  gain  much  acceptance,  par- 
ticularly with  a  certain  class  of  minds,  by  the  argumenta- 
tive garb  in  which  they  appear.  The  teachers  of  these 
errors  come  to  men  accustomed  to  a  sleepy  acquiescence  in 
truths  which  they  have  never  heard  vigorously  discussed, 
bring  their  powers  of  argument  into  agreeable  exercise, 
and  they  are  won.  Even  those  who  maintain  sound  doc- 
trine, sometimes  support  it  by  very  unsound  reasoning, 
and  thereby  leave  the  way  open  for  some  shrewd  opponent 
to  overthrow  their  arguments,  and  thus  appear  to  over 
throw  their  doctrine. 

*  Vinet,  p.  176.  f  Hoppin,  p.  166. 


160  ARGUMENT. 

Every  preacher,  then,  ought  to  develop  and  discipline 
his  powers  in  respect  to  argument.  If  averse  to  reasoning, 
he  should  constrain  himself  to  practise  it ;  if  by  nature 
strongly  inclined  that  way,  he  must  remember  the  serious 
danger  of  deceiving  himself  and  others  by  false  arguments. 
One  who  has  not  carefully  studied  some  good  treatise  of 
Logic,  should  take  the  earliest  opportunity  to  do  so.  It 
will  render  his  mind  sharper  to  detect  fallacy,  in  others  or 
in  himself,  and  wnll  help  to  establish  him  in  the  habit  of 
reasoning  soundly.  The  fact  that,  as  so  often  sneeringly 
remarked,  "  preachers  are  never  replied  to,"  should  make 
it  a  -point  of  honor  with  preachers  not  to  mislead  their 
hearers  by  bad  logic,  and  should  render  them  exceedingly 
solicitous  to  avoid  those  self-deceptions,  which  they  have 
no  keen  opponent  to  reveal.  Well-conducted  debating- 
societies,  prolonged  argument  "with  a  friend  in  private  con- 
versation, and  sometimes  newspaper  discussions,  are  found 
by  various  preachers  to  be  a  valuable  discipline  in  this 
respect.  But  one  must  constantly  remind  himself  to  argue 
for  truth  rather  than  for  victory,  and  as  a  rule  never  to 
maintain  a  proposition  which  he  does  not  really  believe. 
The  delicate  perception  of  truth,  and  the  enthusiastic  love 
for  it,  will  inevitably  be  impaired  by  a  contrary  course. 

Yet  in  preaching  we  need  not  act  as  if  everything  had 
to  be  proved.  Some  things  cannot  be  proved ;  some  do  not 
need  to  be,  and  others  have  been  sufficiently  proved  before, 
and  should  now  be  taken  for  granted.  Elaborate  argument 
which  is  not  called  for,  will  only  awaken  doubt,  or  lead  to 
weariness  and  disgust.  We  may  usually  assume  the  truth 
of  Scripture.*  And  as  to  whatever  the  Scriptures  plainly 
teach,  while  we  must  sometimes  argue,  it  is  often  true,  as 
Spurgeon  has  said,  that  the  preacher  should  "  dogmatize." 
"  The  accent  of  true  authority  is  welcome  to  almost  every 
one.     We  are  prepossessed  in  favor  of  men  who,  in  thia 

*Comp.  chap.  3,  ^  1,  Doctrinal  Subjects. 


ARGUMENT.  161 

world  of  uncertainty  and  perplexity,  express  themselves 

on  a  grave  subject  with  confidence  i.nd  command 

The  person  of  preachers  is  nothing,  their  message  is  the 
■whole ;  and  not  for  their  person,  but  for  their  message,  do 
they  claim  respect ;  but  they  would  be  as  culpable  not  to 
demand  this  respect  for  the  divine  thought  of  which  they 
are  the  depositaries,  as  they  would  be  foolish  and  ridiculous 
to  demand  it  for  their  own  thoughts."  *  But  the  right  to 
speak  with  such  authority  will  be  acknowledged,  among 
Protestants,  only  where  the  preacher  shows  himself  able  to 
prove,  whenever  it  is  appropriate,  all  that  he  maintains. 

Argument  in  preaching  has  one  peculiarity.  There  is  a 
great  authority,  the  Word  of  God,  whose  plain  utterances 
upon  any  question  must  be  held  by  the  preacher  as  decisive 
and  final.  This  is  proof  without  arguing  in  the  narrow 
sense.  Somewhat  similarly  do  all  men  prove  by  the  direct 
appeal  to  consciousness ;  "you  know  that  so  and  so  is  true," 
will  in  some  cases  settle  the  question.  So,  too,  we  frequently 
appeal  to  common  sense  ;  though  it  should  be  noticed  that 
men  often  put  forward  as  a  judgment  of  common  sense 
what  is  only  some  opinion  of  their  own,  some  conclusion 
reached  by  a  process  of  reasoning,  but  so  obscure  as  to 
escape  their  consciousness  and  thus  hide  its  fallacies  from 
their  view.  But  the  Scriptures  furnish  a  standard  of  final 
appeal  having  a  far  more  frequent  and  extensive  applica- 
tion. This  does  not  at  all  enable  us  to  dispense  with  argu- 
ment. We  have  sometimes  to  prove  that  the  Scriptures  are 
such  a  standard  ;  and  to  show  what  the  various  passages 
of  Scripture  teach  on  a  subject,  often  requires  not  merely 
exposition  but  argument.  Many  truths  have  to  be  estab- 
lished partly  by  argument  on  other  grounds,  reinforced  and 
confirmed  by  indirect  teachings  of  the  Bible;  and  it  is 
gratifying  to  believers,  and  demanded  by  unbelievers,  that 
we  should,  wherever  it  is  possible,  exhibit  the  concurrence 

*Vinet,  p.  228-9. 


162  ARGUMENT. 

of  reason  and  experience  with  the  teachings  of  revelation. 
Thus  we  have  constant  need  of  argument.  But  in  all  our 
reasoning,  care  should  be  taken  to  treat  the  authority  of 
Scripture  as  paramount,  and  wherever  its  utterances  are 
distinct  and  unquestionable,  as  decisive.* 

§  1.       PRELIMINARIES   TO   ARGUMENT.f 

There  are  several  questions  which  require  to  be  con- 
sidered, if  at  all,  at  the  outset  of  an  argument,  and  which 
are  here  thrown  together  under  the  head  of  preliminaries. 

1.  Shall  the  proposition  be  stated  at  the  beginning?  It 
should  certainly  be  very  clear  to  the  speaker's  own  mind. 
To  argue  about  one  does  not  exactly  know  what,  is  idle, 
and  in  many  ways  hurtful.  As  a  general  thing,  it  should 
be  distinctly  stated  to  the  audience.  If  the  subject  be  one 
very  difficult  for  the  common  mind  to  grasp,  it  may  be 
better  to  present  it  in  parts,  to  give  first  the  several  argu- 
ments which  will  elucidate  as  well  as  establish  the  proposi- 
tion, and  then  state  it  in  conclusion.  Or  if  there  be  a 
known  unwillingness  to  hear  the  subject  discussed,  or  a 
strong  prejudice  against  the  proposition  to  be  established, 
it  may  be  best  to  withhold  the  enunciation  of  the  proposi- 
tion. Even  here,  however,  it  will  often  be  better  to  speak 
out  frankly  and  boldly.  Men  always  dislike  to  be  caught 
unawares,  and  are  especially  intolerant  of  this  on  the  part 
of  a  preacher,  in  whom  logical  strategy  can  be  so  readily 

*  See  below,  |  2,  B,  E,  and  also  ^  4,  Order  of  Arguments. 

f  In  this  chapter  much  use  is  made  of  Whately,  whose  discussion 
of  Arguments  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  his  work  on  Rhetoric, 
and  unequalled  by  other  treatises.  Some  things  have  also  been 
drawn  directly  from  Aristotle,  and  from  a  variety  of  writers,  as 
acknowledged  in  detail.  The  chapter  contains  a  good  deal  which  is 
not  found  in  Whately,  or  which  differs  widely  from  his  views.  The 
attempt  is  made  to  arrange  the  subject  in  a  simpler  and  more  prac- 
tical way  than  has  been  met  with  in  existing  works. 


ARGUMENT.  163 

Stigmatized  as  uncandid.  And  the  preacher  must  always 
avoid  as  far  as  possible  the  appearance  of  being  the  antag- 
onist of  his  hearers ;  his  designs  are  friendly  and  he  wishes 
no  concealment.  Only  therefore  in  case  of  violent  repug- 
nance or  extreme  prejudice,  or  for  some  other  special  rea- 
son, will  it  be  judicious  for  a  preacher  to  keep  back  the 
statement  of  his  proposition.* 

In  stating  the  proposition,  or  any  division  of  it,  and  in 
the  whole  conduct  of  an  argument,  great  pains  should 
be  taken  to  avoid  ambiguous  terms,  or  if  such  must  be 
employed,  to  limit  their  meaning  by  the  connection,  or 
distinctly  define  them.  Every  one  has  observed  how  im- 
portant it  is,  in  public  or  private  discussion  between  two 
parties,  that  they  shall  understand  the  leading  terms  of  the 
question  alike ;  every  one  has  seen  some  long  dispute  turn 
out  to  have  been  merely  a  dispute  about  words.  But 
though  less  obvious,  the  danger  of  this  is  just  as  great 
where  a  man  is  to  argue  without  reply;  nay  greater, 
because  conflict  is  apt  to  develop,  sooner  or  later,  the  dif- 
ference as  to  the  meaning  of  terms,  while  the  unanswered 
reasoner  may  continue  to  the  end  confused  and  misled  by 
obscure,  indefinite  or  ambiguous  words,  or  utterly  misap- 
prehended by  hearers  who  understand  those  words  dif- 
ferently. The  following  terms,  for  example,  frequently 
occur  in  religious  argument,  and  very  often  embarrass  and 
mislead  by  their  ambiguity,  viz.  necessary,  possible  and 
impossible,  reason,  right  and  righteousness,  good  and  evil, 
law,  nature,  person,  church.| 

2.  Burden  of  proof.  On  this  subject,  certain  very 
erroneous  views  have  lately  obtained  currency,  from  a 
confusion  of  two  different  senses  of  an  ambiguous  term. 

*  Comp.  Day's  Art  of  Discourse,  p.  117;  Vinet,  p.  180. 
f  Most   of   these   are   explained  in  the  Appendix   to  Whately' 
^ogic,  though  not  all  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 


164  ARGUMENT. 

It  is  obviously  very  important,  at  the  outset  of  any  dis 
cussion,  to  perceive  clearly,  and  make  clear  to  the  hearers, 
on  which  side  lies  the  omts  probandi,  i.  e.  burden  of  proof. 
Now  it  is  a  principle  generally  acknowledged,  and  evi- 
dently correct,  that  no  man  is  under  obligation  to  prove 
a  negative.  The  reasons  for  this  are  manifest.  Any  pro- 
position which  depends  on  proof,  is  true  only  when  it  is 
proven,  for  until  then  it  depends  on  nothing,  has  no  sup- 
port. Why  require  a  man  to  knock  down  what  has  not 
yet  been  set  up?  And  then  to  prove  a  negative  would 
often  require  impossible  knowledge.  John  Foster  has 
pointed  out  that  the  atheist  who  not  merely  denies  that 
there  is  a  God,  but  asserts  that  there  is  no  God,  must  have 
infinite  knowledge  in  order  to  make  sure  of  his  assertion, 
for  otherwise,  somewhere  beyond  the  bounds  of  his  knowl- 
edge might  be  proof  that  there  is  a  God ;  that  is  to  say,  in 
respect  of  knowledge  he  must  himself  be  God.  Something 
similar  would  be  true  in  most  cases  of  the  attempt  to  prove 
a  negative.  It  would  demand  more  than  finite  knowledge, 
more  than  human  powers.  To  prove  a  negative,  then,  is 
often   impossible,  and   never   fairly  required.     "He  w^ho 

alleges  must  prove And  the  stress  is  to  be  laid  on 

the  fact  of  alleging  or  affirming,  not  on  the  form  of  the 

proposition  itself  as  affirmative  or  negative If  the 

allegation  be  in  the  negative  form,  it  does  not  shift  the 

burden  of  proof. He  who  makes  an  allegation  puts 

into  being  a  statement  that  did  not  exist  before.  He  is 
properly  called  upon  to  account  for  it  —  prove  it  and  thus 
make  it  a  truth."  * 

The  burden  of  proving,  then,  rests  on  him  who  alleges  ; 
his  allegation  is  nothing  until  proven,  and  until  some  proof 
be  adduced  by  him,  the  opponent  has  nothing  to  do.  When 
proof  is  adduced,  the  opponent  examines  how  far  it  is  valid 
and  conclusive,  still  acting  only  on  the  defensive.     If  in 

•  Day,  p.  158. 


ARGUMENT.  165 

addition  he  presents  an  objection,  he  must  (unless*it  be  per- 
fectly evident)  prove  the  objection  to  be  real,  and  applica- 
ble ;  he  alleges  here,  and  he  must  prove.  So  the  principle 
stands  unaltered,  and  appears  to  be  unalterable  and  univer- 
sal—  he  who  alleges  must  prove;  no  man  is  under  obliga- 
tion to  prove  a  negative. 

But  Whately  and  some  others  introduce  the  word  pre- 
sumption, and  assert  that  the  burden  of  proof  always  lies 
on  the  side  opposite  to  that  which  has  the  presumption  in 
its  favor.*  In  order  to  maintain  this  to  be  true,  presump- 
tion is  defined  as  follows :  ''According  to  the  most  correct 
use  of  the  term,  a  'Presumption'  in  favor  of  any  supposi- 
tion means,  not  (as  has  been  sometimes  erroneously  imag- 
ined) a  preponderance  of  probability  in  its  favor,  but  such 
a  preoccupation  of  the  ground,  as  implies  that  it  must  stand 
good  till  some  sufficient  reason  is  adduced  against  it ;  in 
short,  that  the  Burden  of  Proof  lies  on  the  side  of  him 
who  would  dispute  it."  By  this  definition,  Whately 
assumes  what  he  ought  to  have  proven ;  and  in  every  ques- 
tion in  which  we  should  in  any  sense  say  that  the  presump- 
tion is  in  favor  of  one  side,  he  assumes  that  the  burden  of 
proof  rests  on  the  other  side.  If  presumption  ever  denotes 
such  a  preoccupation  of  the  ground,  it  certainly  does  not 
always,  nor  commonly.  A  presumption  in  favor  of  any 
proposition  is,  in  the  most  general  statement,  something 
which  inclines  us  to  believe  it  true  before  examining  the 
proof,  or  independently  of  the  proof  This  presumption 
may  be  slight,  or  it  may  be  strong.  There  may  be  a  strong 
presumption  in  favor  of  some  accusation,  as  that  Nero 
burnt  Rome,  growing  out  of  the  known  character  of  the 
person  accused;  yet  this  does  not  shift  the  burden  of  proof 
to  him ;  it  remains  on  the  accuser  as  much  as  ever,  though 
this  presumption  reinforces  his  proof,  in  fact  would  be  made 
a  part  of  his  proof.     The  presumption  may  be  on  either 

*  Whately,  p.  139;  Day,  p.  156. 


166  ARGUMENT. 

side,  or  on  neither,  without  altering  the  burden  of  proof 
at  all.  Thus  it  becomes  clear  that  Whately's  definition  is 
at  least  not  universally  correct ;  indeed,  he  himself  does 
not  claim  that  it  applies  to  the  general  use,  but  only  to 
"  the  most  correct  use  of  the  term."  And  so  it  assuredly 
is  not  true  as  a  general  proposition,  that  "  the  burden  of 
proof  ahvays  rests  on  the  side  opposite  to  that  in  favor  of 
which  the  presumption  exists."  * 

But  there  are  some  uses  of  the  term  presumption  in  which 
at  first  sight  this  correlation  appears  to  exist.  "  Thus,  it 
is  a  well-known  principle  of  the  Law,  that  every  man  (in- 
cluding a  prisoner  brought  up  for  trial)  is  to  be  presumed 
innocent  till  his  guilt  is  established.  This  does  not,  of 
course,  mean  that  we  are  to  take  for  granted  he  is  innocent ; 
for  if  that  were  the  case,  he  would  be  entitled  to  immediate 
liberation :  nor  does  it  mean  that  it  is  antecedently  more 
likely  than  not  that  he  is  innocent ;  or,  that  the  majority  of 
those  brought  to  trial  are  so.  It  evidently  means  only  that 
the  '  burden  of  proof '  lies  with  the  accusers  ;  —  that  he  is 
not  to  be  called  to  prove  his  innocence,  or  to  be  dealt  with 
as  a  criminal  till  he  has  done  so."  f  Now  it  is  a  peculiarity 
of  Law,  that  it  confines  its  view  to  things  proven.  The 
judge  and  the  jury  may  be  well  satisfied  in  their  own  minds 
that  the  accused  is  guilty,  but  they  cannot  convict  unless 
the  guilt  be  proven.  They  must  confine  themselves  to  the 
evidence.  They  must  approach  the  examination  of  the 
evidence  without  prejudgment,  and  without  being  aflfected 
by^  any  presumption  (in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  term), 
whether  for  or  against  the  prisoner,  without  considering 
whether  his  guilt  or  innocence  is  "  antecedently  more 
likely  ; "  accordingly,  the  eflfort  is  made  to  obtain  a  jury 
who  have  not  formed  any  opinion  on  the  question.  Since, 
then,  all  presumption  on  other  grounds  is  in  law  ex- 
cluded, and  everything  but  proof  is  to  be  ignored,  it  follows 

*Day.  f  Whately,  p.  139. 


ARGUMENT.  167 

that  law  admits  but  one  presumption,  viz.  that  the  man  is 
innocent ;  and  this  presumption  must  be  made  in  all  cases, 
because  the  man  is  innocent,  so  far  as  the  law  has  to  do 
with  him,  until  proof  be  brought  of  his  guilt.  Antecedent  to 
proof,  or  independent  of  proof,  there  can  be  but  the  one  view 
of  the  question.  So  the  fact  that  in  this  legal  usage  the 
presumption  and  the  burden  of  proof  lie  on  opposite  sides, 
does  not  spring  from  any  general  relation  to  that  effect 
between  the  two,  but  grows  out  of  the  restriction  of  legal 
decisions  to  proof,  and  the  consequent  exclusion  of  every 
presumption  but  that  of  innocence.  And  even  in  this  very 
peculiar  and  restricted  sense,  to  say  "  that  every  man  is  to 
be  presumed  innocent  until  his  guilt  is  established,"  does 
not  "  mean  only,"  or  in  strictness  of  speech  mean  at  all, 
"that  the  burden  of  proof  lies  with  the  accusers;"  it  means 
that  every  other  presumption  must  be  excluded,  and  this 
one  alone  admitted,  because  nothing  but  proof  is  to  be 
taken  into  account. 

A  somewhat  similar  technical  restriction  has  place  when 
we  say  that  there  is  in  law  a  "  presumption  "  in  favor  of 
those  who  hold  property  in  possession.  This  means,  we  are 
told,  "  that  no  man  is  to  be  disturbed  in  his  possessions  till 
some  claim  against  him  shall  be  established."  *  The  bur- 
den of  proof  lies  on  the  other  claimant.  Now  apart  from 
legal  provisions,  possession  does  in  most  cases  afford  a  logi- 
cal presumption,  antecedent  to  proof,  in  favor  of  the  pos- 
sessor's right ;  though  not  in  all  cases.  But  the  law,  as  a 
measure  of  expediency,  to  promote  order  and  security:, 
declares  that  the  legal  presumption  shall  always  be  in  favor 
of  the  possessor.  This  is  usually  in  accordance  with  right, 
and  as  the  law  must  have  general  rules,  this  is  the  best 
general  rule.  The  logical  presumption  may  sometimes  be 
in  favor  of  the  new  claimant,  on  whom  the  burden  of  proof 
lies,  but  the  legal  presumption  is  made  to  be  always  against 

*Whately,  p.  140. 


168  ARGUMENT. 

him.  Indeed  the  law  sometimes  goes  farther,  and  provides 
that  possession  for  a  certain  number  of  years  shall  be  held 
to  establish  right,  and  cannot  afterwards  be  disturbed ;  this 
also  being  bes.t  as  a  general  rule,  though  sometimes  working 
great  injustice.  In  the  second  case,  then,  as  well  as  in  the 
former,  the  "  presumption  "  is  made  to  fall  on  the  opposite 
side  to  that  on  which  the  "burden  of  proof"  lies,  not  by 
any  natural  and  general  relation  between  them,  but  by 
the  peculiar  character  and  provisions  of  law. 

Again.  "  There  is  a  Presumption  in  favor  of  every  eX' 
isting  institution.  Many  of  these  (we  will  suppose,  the 
majority)  may  be  susceptible  of  alteration  for  the  better; 
but  still  the  'Burden  of  Proof  lies  with  him  who  proposes 
an  alteration ;  simply  on  the  ground  that  since  a  change  is 
not  a  good  in  itself,  he  who  demands  a  change  should  show 
cause  for  it.  No  one  is  called  on  (though  he  may  find  it 
advisable)  to  defend  an  existing  institution,  till  some  argu- 
ment is  adduced  against  it ;  and  that  argument  ought  in 
fairness  to  prove,  not  merely  an  actual  inconvenience,  but 
the  possibility  of  a  change  for  the  better."  * 

As  in  the  former  cases  the  general  logical  and  the  legal 
presumption  were  confounded,  so  here  there  is  a  confusion 
of  logical  with  what  might  be  called  practical  presumption. 
It  is  practically  best  to  retain  existing  institutions  until 
they  are  proven  to  be  inconvenient,  and  until  there  is  also 
shown  the  possibility  of  a  change  for  the  better.  But  this 
aversion  to  change,  and  practical  preference  for  things  as 
they  are,  even  to  the  extent  of  bearing  known  ills  until  we 
see  clearly  how  to  do  better,  is  a  very  different  matter  from 
a  logical  presumption  that  existing  arrangements  are  right 
and  good. 

There  are  really  two  questions,  if  we  begin  to  argue 
about  an  existing  institution.  First,  is  this  institution 
right  and  good?     Here  the  presumption  may  be  either 

♦Whately,  p.  141. 


ARGUMENT.  169 

way ;  the  burden  of  proof  is  on  him  who  alleges  that  it  is 
right  and  good.  There  is  commonly  one  ground  of  pre- 
sumption in  favor  of  any  existing,  and  especially  any 
long-continued  institution,  namely,  that  men  are  likely  to 
have  had  good  reasons  for  establishing  and  maintaining  it. 
But  this  is  often  greatly  weakened  by  the  well-known  self- 
ishness and  folly  of  mankind,  and  sometimes  is  completely 
destroyed,  or  thrown  on  the  other  side,  by  the  obvious  fact 
that  here  men  have  only  been  submitting  to  w^hat  they  were 
hitherto  unable  to  prevent.  Various  other  grounds  of  pre- 
sumption there  may  be,  for  or  against  the  institution,  but 
whatever  and  wherever  the  presumption,  the  burden  of 
proof,  in  discussing  the  excellQwce  of  the  institution,  is  on 
him  who  affirms  its  excellence.  He  may  declare  himself 
content,  and  refuse  to  argue  the  question,  submitting  to 
the  inevitable  charge  that  he  is  afraid  of  the  light.  But  if 
he  consents  to  argue  at  all,  the  burden  of  proof  is  on  him. 

And  this  applies  to  the  question  of  the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity. Whately  says  that  the  burden  of  proof  was  at 
first  on  the  advocates  of  Christianity,  but  is  now  on  its 
opponents,  because  there  is  a  presumption  in  favor  of  it  as 
an  existing  institution.*  Such  a  presumption  there  is  in 
favor  of  Christianity,  although  there  is  in  this  respect  an 
equal,  if  not  greater  presumption  in  favor  of  several  other 
religions ;  but  the  moment  a  man  consents  to  discuss  the 
truth  of  Christianity,  the  burden  of  proof  is  still  on  him 
who  alleges  it  to  be  true.  The  other  side  cannot  be  re- 
quired to  prove  a  negative. 

The  second  question  is,  Should  this  existing  institution 
be  maintained  ?  If  the  former  question  has  been  clearly 
decided  in  the  affirmative,  there  will  still  be  room  to  inquire 
whether  something  else  w^ould  not  be  equally  right,  and 
better  in  its  results.  And  if  the  institution  (for  example, 
a  form  of  government,  benevolent  organization,  or  usage 

15  *  Whately,  p.  143. 


170  AKGUMENT. 

of  society)  is  not  altogether  good,  or  even  not  certainly 
right,  it  may  still  be  best  to  retain  it,  at  least  for  the  pres- 
ent, until  we  see  our  way  to  something  more  satisfactory. 
The  two  questions,  then,  are  entirely  distinct,  and  should 
not  be  confounded.  And  what  was  called  above  a  practical 
presumption,  is  thus  seen  to  be  really  a  logical  presump- 
tion, but  with  reference  to  a  distinct  and  directly  practical 
question. 

These  considerations  will  explain  another  case.  "  It 
should  be  also  remarked  under  this  head,  that  in  any  one 
question  the  Presumption  will  often  be  found  to  lie  on  dif- 
ferent sides,  in  respect  of  different  parties.  E.  g.  In  the 
questions  between  a  member  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  a  Presbyterian,  or  member  of  any  other  Church,  on 
which  side  does  the  Presumption  lie  ?  Evidently,  to  each, 
in  favor  of  the  religious  community  to  which  he  at  present 
belongs.  He  is  not  to  separate  from  the  Church  of  which 
he  is  a  member,  without  having  some  sufficient  reason  to 
allege."*  According  to  the  author's  view,  the  burden  of 
proof  would  then  be  properly  thrown  by  each  upon  the 
other,  and  there  could  be  no  discussion.  But  two  ques- 
tions are  confounded.  In  the  practical  question  whether  a 
man  shall  leave  his  church,  the  presumption  is  in  favor  of 
remaining,  till  sufficient  reason  for  leaving  be  presented 
by  others,  or  ascertained  by  himself.  Meantime,  it  is  a 
man's  duty  to  examine  the  grounds  of  his  opinion  and 
practice,  in  this  and  in  other  important  matters,  as  rapidly 
and  thoroughly  as  his  opportunities  will  permit.  But  in 
the  other  question,  which  church  is  in  the  right,  if  the 
two  consent  to  argue  it,  the  burden  of  proof  is  on  each  in 
behalf  of  his  own.  He  who  in  the  argument  alleges  a 
particular  church  to  be  in  the  right  must  bring  proof  that 
it  is.  If  the  other  adduces  objections  t:  this  church,  he 
must  bring  proof  that  his  objection  are  vvell-founded,  but 

*  Whately,  p.  145. 


ARGUMENT.  171 

this  does  not  shift  the  burden  of  proof  as  regards  the  ques- 
tion. 

Whately  also  applies  his  theory  that  there  is  a  presump- 
tion in  favor  of  existing  institutions  (without  distinguish- 
ing the  questions  involved),  and  that  a  presumption  in 
favor  of  one  side  throws  the  burden  of  proof  on  the  other, 
to  Episcopacy  and  to  Infant-baptism.  The  latter,  for  exam- 
ple, as  an  existing  practice,  was  merely  retained  by  the 
Church  of  England,  "  considering  the  burden  to  lie  on 
those  who  denied  its  existence  in  the  primitive  church,  to 
show  when  it  did  arise."  Of  course  one  will  continue  to 
practise  as  he  has  done,  till  he  sees  cause  to  do  otherwise. 
If  he  refuses  to  discuss  or  examine  the  propriety  of  the  prac- 
tice, taking  it  for  granted  that  all  the  opinions  and  usages 
in  which  he  has  been  reared  are  correct,  unless  some  one 
will  assume  the  task  of  proving  that  they  are  not  (proving 
a  negative),  then  upon  that  principle  all  mankind  may 
remain  in  all  respects  stationary.  If  he  consents  to  argue, 
or  personally  to  examine,  its  propriety,  then  the  burden  of 
proof  is  upon  him  who  alleges  that  it  is  proper,  and  upon 
the  objector  only  as  regards  his  objections.  So  the  pre- 
sumption in  favor  of  retaining  at  present,  differs  from  a 
presumption  that  the  practice  is  right ;  and  the  latter  exists 
here  only  so  far  as  we  may  believe  that  men  have  intro- 
duced no  changes  of  Christian  usage  since  the  apostolic 
day.  As  to  this  slender  presumption,  those  who  deny  the 
existence  of  infant-baptism  in  the  primitive  church,  have 
no  need,  in  order  to  meet  the  presumption,  to  "  show  when 
it  did  arise,"  but  only,  as  the  author  says  just  before  on  a 
similar  question,  to  "  point  out  some  conceivable  way  in 
which  it  might  have  arisen."  Besides,  infant-baptism  does 
not  present  itself  as  a  human  institution,  which  it  might  be 
presumed  men  had  good  reasons  for  establishing,  but  as  a 
divine  institution,  of  which,  as  Whately  says  just  after  on 
another  qi  estion,  *Hhe  fair  presumption  is,  that  we  shall  find 


172  ARGUMENT. 

all  sucli  distinctly  declared  in  Scripture."  The  absence 
of  such  a  distinct  declaration  of  Scripture  in  favor  of 
infant-baptism,  creates  a  presumption  against  it  as  a  divine 
institution.  But  none  of  the  presumptions  alter  the  bur- 
den of  proof.  In  the  question  whether  it  is  right  for  a  man 
to  continue  the  practice  to  which  he  has  been  reared  until 
he  gains  more  light,  the  presumption  is  in  favor ;  in  the 
question  whether  something  not  distinctly  taught  in  Scrip- 
ture be  a  divine  institution,  the  presumption  is  against ;  in 
both  questions  alike,  the  burden  of  proof  is  on  him  who 
alleges.  The  other  side  is  not  bound  to  prove  a  negative. 
The  argument  as  to  Episcopacy  is  very  much  the  same. 

Is  it  not  now  plain  that  there  is  no  such  correlation 
between  presumption  and  burden  of  proof  as  some  have 
imagined  ?  A  presumption  in  favor  of  one  side  does  not 
throw  the  burden  of  proof  on  the  other.  The  cases  sup- 
posed to  establish  that  it  does,  are  either  cases  in  which  the 
presumption  is  restricted  by  the  character  and  provisions 
of  law,  or  in  which  two  questions  are  confounded,  the  bur- 
den of  proof  standing  opposed  to  the  presumption  in  one 
of  the  questions,  and  being  therefore  assumed  as  doing  so 
in  the  other.  The  presumption  as  to  a  question  may  be  on 
either  side,  according  to  the  nature  of  things  or  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case ;  there  may  be,  on  different  grounds, 
presumption  on  both  sides ;  but  the  burden  of  proof  is 
always  on  him  who  alleges.* 

An  instructive  example  as  to  the  burden  of  proof  is 
afforded  by  the  argument  with  Romanists.  They  say, 
Christ  promised  to  his  Church  continuous  existence ;  the 

*  In  this  discussion  some  help  has  been  derived  from  the  able 
work  of  Carson  on  Baptism,  chap.  1,  in  which  there  is  a  review  of 
"Whately  on  this  subject.  If  it  be  said  that  Carson  and  the  present 
writer  are  biassed  in  their  views  of  the  general  question  by  its  bear- 
ings upon  Episcopacy,  Infant-baptism,  etc.,  there  is  equal  reason  to 
Bus|  ect  the  same  thing  in  the  case  of  Archbishop  Whately. 


ARGUMENT.  173 

Church  of  Rome  has  had  continuous  exisi^ence;  therefore 
it  is  Christ's  Church.  Here  the  burden  of  proof  is  upon 
the  Romanist  to  show  that  no  other  Church  has  had  con- 
tinuous existence  ;  he  must  prove  that  the  Greek  Church, 
the  Church  of  England,  the  Reformed  Churches  of  the 
continent,  the  Baptists,  etc.,  have  not  existed  continuously 
from  the  beginning.  We  are  not  thus  demanding  of  a 
man  that  he  shall  prove  a  negative,  but  only  pointing  out 
that  the  Romanist's  o\Yn  argument  requires  him  to  do  so, 
and  is  worthless  if  he  does  not.  The  others  say  to  him, 
Well,  prove  that  we  have  not  had  continuity.  But  if 
either  of  these  others  maintains,  whether  for  the  purpose 
of  a  like  argument  or  for  any  other  purpose,  that  it  has 
had  continuous  existence,  then  on  it  rests  the  burden  of 
proof 

3.  Indirect  proof 

Instead  of  direct  proof  that  the  proposition  is  true,  we 
sometimes  adopt  the  indirect  method,  viz.  by  showing 
that  the  contrary  supposition  would  lead  to  something 
known  to  be  untrue,  or  in  itself  absurd  (redudio  ad  absur- 
dum).  This  plan  is  very  often  pursued  in  Geometry, 
where  only  one  or  two  other  suppositions  would  be  possi- 
ble. But  in  moral  reasoning  this  does  not  often  happen, 
and  hence  the  redudio  ad  absurdum  is  for  us  chiefly  im- 
portant in  Refutation.* 

§  2.       PRINCIPAL   VARIETIES   OF   ARGUMENT. 

It  is  not  proposed  to  begin  with  a  formal  analysis  and 
classification  of  arguments,  but  to  explain  the  nature  and 
use  of  the  leading  varieties ;  it  will  afterwards  be  easy  to 
show  the  place  which  these  hold  in  a  complete  classifica- 
tion. 

A.  Arguments  a  priori. 

The  phrase  a  priori  has  come  to  be  so  variously  applied 

*  See  below,  g  2,  F. 
15* 


174  ARGUMENT. 

and  loosely  used,  that  some  propose  to  abandon  it.  Yet 
it  is  of  constant  occurrence,  particularly  in  theological  and 
philosophical  discussions,  and  no  fit  substitute  has  been 
suggested.  It  seems  desirable,  therefore,  to  state  distinctly 
the  different  senses  in  which  the  phrase  is  employed,  show- 
ing which  are  legitimate  and  which  unwarrantable,  and  in 
what  cases  there  is  special  necessity  for  care. 

To  argue  a  priori  is  literally  to  argue  from  something 
prior  to  something  posterior ;  a  movement  in  the  opposite 
direction  being  denoted  by  a  posteriori. 

1.  It  was  originally  used  by  logical  writers,  and  is  still 
chiefly  used,  to  denote  an  argument  from  cause  to  effect. 
It  is  thus,  of  course,  applicable  to  any  case  of  proper  phys- 
ical causes,  but  is-  chiefly  applied  to  argument  from  a 
necessary  principle,  such  as  ex  nihilo  nihil  fit  (out  of  nothing 
nothing  is  made).  This  species  of  argument  was  formerly 
employed  on  a  very  large  scale  for  the  ascertainment  of 
physical  phenomena  and  laws.  Some  principle  was  laid 
down,  regarded  as  necessary  and  universal,  and  from  this 
it  was  argued  that  the  facts  of  existence  must  be  so  and  so. 
But  modern  science,  founded  on  observation,  has  shown 
that  some  of  the  supposed  necessary  principles  are  not 
true,  or  not  universal.  E.  g.  Two  centuries  ago  it  was  a 
maxim  universally  admitted  that  "a  body  cannot  act 
where  it  is  not."  This  was  used  in  an  a  priori  argument 
against  the  theory  of  gravitation ;  the  sun  cannot  possibly 
act  upon  the  earth,  because  it  is  not  there.  Newton  him- 
self admitted  the  force  of  this,  saying  in  a  letter,  "  That 
one  body  should  act  on  another  at  a  distance,  through  a 
vacuum,  without  the  mediation  of  anything  else  by  and 
through  Avhich  their  action  and  force  may  be  conveyed 
from  one  to  another,  is  to  me  so  great  an  absurdity,  that  I 
believe  no  man  who  in  philosophical  matters  has  a  compe- 
tent faculty  of  thinking,  can  ever  fall  into  it."  Accord- 
ingly he  imagined  a  subtle  ether  filling  the  space  between 


AEGI3MENT.  176 

the  sun  and  earth,  and  by  its  contact  with  both,  rendering 
it  possible  that  one  should  act  on  the  other.*  At  the  pres- 
ent day  all  this  occasions  no  difficultY,  and  the  language 
of  the  great  philosopher  provokes  a  smile.  Such  facts 
should  not  lead  us,  ai  some  have  been  led,  to  reject  all  argu- 
ments from  necessary  principles,  but  should  make  us  very 
careful  in  using  them. 

The  conclusion  from  an  a  priori  argument  (supposing  it 
logically  conducted)  will  be  certain,  if  on  the  one  hand  the 
supposed  cause  is  a  real  one,  and  on  the  other  hand,  there 
is  nothing  to  interfere  with  its  operation;  but  if  the  reality 
of  the  cause  (or  necessary  principle)  be  subject  to  question, 
or  its  operations  be  liable  t<5  interference,  then  the  con- 
clusion is  only  more  or  less  probable.  There  is  an  a  priori 
argument  for  the  existence  of  God,t  which  begins  thus : 
"  Positive  existence  is  possible,  for  it  involves  no  contra- 
diction." Here  the  "first  principle"  assumed  is,  that 
whatever  involves  no  contradiction  is  possible,  and  this  is 
repeatedly  appealed  to,  in  the  course  of  the  argument. 
Then  after  pointing  out  that  possible  existence  must  be 
either  necessary  or  contingent,  the  position  is  taken  that 
some  existence  is  necessary,  for  otherwise  all  existence 
would  be  impossible.  And  then  by  a  series  of  abstract 
arguments,  the  conclusion  is  reached,  that  there  is  one 
necessarily  existent  Being,  the  cause  of  all  other  existence 
besides  himself,  and  that  he  is  eternal,  infinite,  etc.  Now 
supposing  the  successive  steps  of  this  argument  to  be  logi- 
cal, the  conclusion  will  be  certain  if  the  principle  started 
from  is  certain.  When  in  proving  that  we  have  a  Reve- 
lation, it  is  first  argued  a  priori  from  the  character  of  God 
and  the  condition  of  man  that  a  revelation  v)as  to  bi 
expected,  this  is  only  a  probable  argument,  for  we  do  not, 
apart  from  revelation,  sufficiently  understand  the  character 

*  See  Mill's  Logic,  Book  V,  chap.  3,  §  3. 
t  See  Pye  Smith's  Theology,  p.  99, 


176  ARGUMENT. 

of  God  to  infer  with  certainty  that  it  would  lead  him  to 
p-ive  a  revelation  to  creatures  in  such  a  condition. 

The  name  a  priori  is  inaccurately  applied  to  some  argu- 
ments which  really  begin  -with  facts  of  observation  (and 
are  so  far  a  posteriori),  but  which  afterwards  pursue  a 
chain  of  abstract  reasoning  upon  what  these  necessarily 
involve.  Such  was  Samuel  Clarke's  argument  for  the  exist- 
ence of  God,  which  is  constantly  called  an  a  priori  argu- 
ment because  it  introduces  certain  supposed  necessary 
princij^les,  and  reasons  for  the  most  part  abstractly,  and 
yet  (as  Hamilton  has  remarked  *  )  in  fact  begins  with  a 
matter  of  observation,  viz.  "  we  are  sure  that  something 
does  exist."t 

2.  The  use  of  the  phrase  has  been  gradually  extended 
to  include  argument  from  what  appears  to  us  a  general 
principle  —  not  asserted  as  a  necessary  principle,  but  one 
which  is  believed  to  hold  true  in  all  cases.  Unless  such  a 
supposed  general  principle  necessitates  a  certain  result, 
that  result  cannot  be  inferred  from  it  as  an  argument  a 
priori.  The  principle  is  in  that  case  only  a  generalized 
fact,  like  the  generalizations  of  Natural  History,  informing 
us  what  regularly  is,  not  in  any  sense  causing  it  to  be  so. 
But  in  this  unwarranted  direction  the  use  of  the  phrase  is 
sometimes  carried  very  far.  Men  attempt  to  dignify  as  an 
argument  a  priori,  or,  as  they  sometimes  call  it,  an  argu- 
ment from  general  principles,  what  is  really  an  argument 
from  some  arbitrary  preconception,  prejudice,  fanciful 
theory,  or  mere  opinion,  of  their  own.  And  some  appear 
to  think  that  any  argument  which  looks  general,  or  ab- 
stract, may  be  called  an  argument  a  priori.  We  must 
then  look  out  for  loose  applications  of  the  phrase  on  the 

*  Hamilton,  ed.  of  Reid,  p.  7G2:  Fleming,  Vocab.  of  l^hilosopliy, 
p.  42. 

f  See  the  statement  of  the  argument  in  Pye  Smith's  Theology,  p. 
101. 


ARGUMENT.  177 

part  of  others,  and  carefully  confine  ourselves  to  the  legiti- 
mate use. 

3.  The  attempt  has  been  made  to  give  to  argument  a 
priori  another  distinct  sense,  viz.  the  argument  from  a 
substance  to  its  attributes.*  Thus,  John  is  a  man,  there- 
fore he  possesses  intelligence,  will,  conscience,  a  bodily 
organization,  etc.  But  this  is  called  an  argument  a  priori 
only  by  overlooking  a  distinction.  John  is  a  man,  there- 
fore he  will  act  conscientiously,  is  an  argument  a  priori^ 
because  it  means  that  there  is  something  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  man  which  leads  him  to  act  conscientiously  ;  it  is 
really  an  argument  from  cause  to  effect  —  with  only  a  pro- 
bable conclusion,  because  other  causes  so  often  interfere 
with  the  operation  of  man's  conscience.  But  to  say,  John 
is  a  man,  therefore  he  has  a  conscience,  is  only  an  argu- 
ment from  general  to  particular,  only  bringing  out  one  of 
the  particulars  which  go  to  make  up  the  general.  This  is 
not  in  any  sense  an  argument  from  something  prior,  for 
being  a  man  is  not  prior  to  having  a  conscience,  but 
includes  it.  The  argument,  John  is  mortal,  for  he  is  a 
man,f  is  somewhat  ambiguous.  Taken  strictly,  it  infers 
the  attribute  mortality,  and  is  thus  simply  a  common 
deduction  of  particular  from  general.  But  understand  it 
to  mean,  John  will  die,  for  he  is  a  man,  and  you  have  an 
argument  a  priori,  which,  again,  is  really  from  cause  to 
effect — there  is  that  in  a  man  which  will  cause  him  to  die. 
So  if  the  term  law  is  employed.  When  law  denotes 
"merely  a  general  fact,"  as,  It  is  the  law  of  material 
bodies  that  they  gravitate,  and  we  deduce  any  particular 
fact  from  the  general  one,  the  deduction  is  by  no  means  an 
argument  a  priori.  If  it  were  meant  that  material  bodies 
have  that  in  their  constitution  which  causes  them  to  grav- 
itate, then  you  could  take  the  case  of  any  particular 
material  body,  and  infer,  a  priori,  that  it  will  gravitate. 

*  Day,  p.  128-33  f  Day,  p.  129. 


178  ARGUMENT. 

This  confusion  of  law  as  the  statement  of  a  general  fact, 
with  law  as  denoting  that  which  causes,  or  somehow  neces- 
sitates facts,  has  led  to  much  false  reasoning  in  recent 
works,  particularly  in  discussions  of  Divine  Providence.* 

So  then,  to  infer  the  attribute  from  the  substance  is  not 
an  a  priori  argument.     In  the  cases  which  seem  to  be  such 
it  is  really  an  inference  of  the  result  from  the  constitution, 
which  is  the  effect  from  the  cause.     This  is  what  Vinet  is 
evidently  thinking  of  when  he  says,  '''Proof  a  priori,  which 

proves  the  fact  from  its  cause  or  its  nature I  prove 

a  priori,  that  lying  is  offensive  to  God,  because  he  is  a  God 
of  truth."  t  The  argument  is,  that  there  is  that  in  God's 
nature,  as  a  God  of  truth,  which  must  render  lying  offen- 
sive to  him ;  and  this  is  really  an  argument  from  cause  to 
effect.  The  remark  may  be  added,  that  a  priori  argument 
from  the  Nature  of  God,  must  be  employed  with  great  care. 
God  will  always  act  consistently  with  his  nature,  and  so 
conclusions  might  here  be  drawn  with  certainty,  but  for 
the  fact  that  we  so  imperfectly  understand  the  Divine 
Nature,  and  the  relations  thereto  of  particular  lines  of 
conduct.  *God  is  just,  therefore  he  will  give  all  men  an 
equal  chance  of  salvation,'  *  God  is  good,  therefore  he  will 
finally  save  all  men,'  are  conclusions  which  the  angel 
Gabriel  would  feel  himself  too  ignorant  to  draw. 

4.  There  is  a  peculiar  use  of  a  priori  in  some  modern 
philosophical  works.  Kant  applied  the  phrase  "  knowledge 
a  priori,"  to  denote  knowledge  possessed  by  the  mind  prior 
to  all  that  it  derives  from  experience  ;  and  then  knowledge 
which  is  derived  from,  comes  after  experience,  is  called 
knowledge  a  posteriori.l     A  pair  of  antithetical  phrases 

*  See  M'Cosh  on  the  Divine  Government. 

■f  Vinet,  p.  180.  The  expression  (perhaps  due  to  the  student 
whose  notes  are  followed),  ^its  nature,'  tends  to  confuse;  but  the 
examples  show  what  is  meant. 

X  See  Fleming,  Vocabulary  of  Philosophy,  p.  42-3,  a  useful  book 


ARGUMENT.  179 

will  of  course  admit  of  being  turned  towards  different 
points  of  the  compass,  provided  they  are  kept  opposite  to 
each  other.*  Kant's  use  of  these  two  phrases,  which  he 
distinctly  defined,  has  been  followed  by  some  subsequent 
writers.  Let  it  be  understood,  then,  by  the  student,  that 
the  expressions,  a  priori  knowledge,  a  priori  truths,  etc., 
mean  something  entirely  different  from  a  priori  argument. 
We  may  indeed  argue  a  priori  from  what  these  writers 
would  call  an  a  priori  truth  (e.  g.  every  effect  must  have 
a  cause),  and  here  there  is  a  point  of  apparent  contact 
between  the  two  senses  of  the  phrase,  but  they  are  alto- 
gether different. 

An  argument  a  j'iriori  has  been  thus  shown  to  be,  in  all 
legitimate  uses  of  the  phrase,  an  argument  from  cause  to 
effect;  whether  it  be  from  a  proper  physical  cause,  or  from 
something  in  the  general  nature  of  things  which  necessitates 
a  certain  result,  or  from  some  thing  in  the  nature  of  a  par- 
ticular object  or  person  which  tends  to  produce  a  certain 
result. 

With  reference  to  the  employment  of  arguments,  whether 
a  priori  or  not,  bearing  upon  the  relations  of  cause  and 
effect,  there  are  ambiguities  in  the  familiar  use  of  language, 
which  render  necessary  two  distinctions.  First,  we  must 
distinguish  between  logical  and  physical  sequence.  E.  g. 
"  With  many  of  them  God  was  not  well-pleased ;  for  they 
were  overthrown  in  the  wilderness."  The  fact  that  God 
was  not  well-pleased  with  them  is  the  logical  consequent  of 
their  overthrow,  being  proved  from  it ;  but  is,  so  to  speak, 
the  physical  antecedent,  being  the  cause  of  it.     These  two 

*  For  example,  the  terms  analytic  and  synthetic  are  employed  by 
Vinet  (p.  180),  and  Potter  (Sacred  Eloquence,  p.  149),  in  diametri- 
cally opposite  ways  with  reference  to  the  same  things;  and  each 
use  can  be  justified,  depending  on  the  way  in  which  the  matter  is 
regarded.  Day  (p.  122)  has  a  third  use,  quite  difi'erent  from  either, 
on  a  kindred  topic. 


180  ARGUMENT. 

kinds  of  sequence  are  very  often  confounded,  and  very 
liable  to  be,  from  the  fact  that  we  use  the  same  terms,  'for,' 
*  because,'  '  therefore,'  *  consequently,'  etc.  to  denote  both  ; 
yet  they  may  coincide,  or  be  opposed  to  each  other,  or  may 
exist  separately.  Particularly  frequent  is  the  error  of  pre- 
senting that  as  the  cause  of  something,  which  is  only  the 
proof  of  it.*  Secondly,  it  is  important  to  distinguish  between 
cause  and  occasion.  The  inebriate  says  to  the  liquor-seller, 
or  to  his  boon  companion,  "  You  are  the  cause  of  my  get- 
ting drunk,"  when  these  were  but  the  occasion,  and  the 
cause  was  his  appetite.  To  remove  some  of  the  occasions 
for  any  kind  of  vicious  indulgence,  will  be  likely  to  lessen 
the  evil,  but  we  must  not  imagine  that  this  is  removing  the 
cause. 

B.  Arguments  from  testimony. 

It  would  be  convenient  if  the  words  testimony  and 
authority  could  be  kept  .entirely  distinct,  the  former  ap- 
plied only  to  matters  of  fact,  and  the  latter  only  to  mat- 
ters of  judgment  and  opinion.f  Yet  common  usage  some- 
times confounds  these  terms,  even  as  men  are  so  apt  not 
to  distinguish  facts  from  their  own  judgments  concerning 
them. J  In  the  alleged  "spiritual  manifestations"  of  which 
we  now  hear  so  much,  there  is  unquestionable  testimony 
that  tables  rise  and  move,  without  the  application  of  any 
apparent  and  adequate  physical  force,  that  certain  peculiar 
rapping  sounds  are  heard,  etc.,  and  upon  the  testimony 
these  matters  of  fact  should  be  without  hesitation  admitted. 
But  what  causes  these  movements  and  sounds,  whether 
some  unknown  physical  force,  or  some  unknown  spiritual 
agency,  is  purely  matter  of  opinion.  Those  who  have  most 
frequently  witnessed  the  phenomena,  are  not  thereby  the 
best  prepared  to  judge  of  their  cause  ;  while  the  supposed 

*See  more  in  Whately,  p.  75  ff. 

f  Day,  p.  138,  asserts  such  a  distinction  as  if  it  were  absolute. 

I  See  Whately,  p.  79-83. 


ARGUMENT.  181 

interpretation  of  the  rapping  noises,  and  the  correspondence 
of  such  interpretations  with  facts  otherwise  known,  are 
matters  which  open  a  wide  door  for  all  manner  of  self- 
delusions  and  impostures.  We  must  accustom  ourselves, 
and  educate  the  people,  to  distinguish  more  carefully  than 
is  common  between  testimony  as  to  matters  of  fact,  and 
mere  judgments,  opinions,  and  hypotheses  as  to  their  ex- 
planation. 

It  is  not  appropriate  here  to  discuss  the  general  subject 
of  testimony,  as  bearing  upon  the  administration  of  justice. 
And  yet  a  minister  does  well  to  consider  carefully  the  rules 
of  evidence  in  the  courts  of  justice,  endeavoring,  in  every 
case,  to  find  the  principle  involved,  that  he  may  apply  it, 
with  the  necessary  adaptations,  to  the  matters  with  which 
he  is  concerned.  Those  parts  of  the  subject  with  which 
the  preacher  frequently  has  to  deal,  will  be  briefly  treated. 

(1.)  In  testimony  as  to  matters  of  fact,  the  points  to  be 
considered  are,  on  the  one  hand,  the  character  and  num- 
ber of  the  witnesses,  and  on  the  other,  the  character  of  the 
things  attested. 

As  to  the  character  of  the  witnesses,  we  of  course  con- 
sider mainly  their  veracity,  but  also  their  intelligence,  and 
opportunities  of  knowing  the  facts.  A  large  number  of 
witnesses  will  obviously  make  the  evidence  stronger,  pro- 
vided they  speak  each  from  his  own  knowledge,  and  not  from 
what  others  have  told  him.  When  there  are  several  such 
independent  witnesses,  their  testimony  will  differ  as  to  some 
points  of  detail.  Where  the  details  are  numerous,  no  man 
will  be  expected  to  remember  and  state  them  all;  and  each 
will  select  according  to  what  he  happened  to  observe,  what 
specially  commended  itself  to  his  mind,  or  he  has  had 
frequent  occasion  since  to  recall,  or  what  falls  in  with  the 
general  design  and  drift  of  his  statement,  or  is  suggested, 
point  after  point,  by  the  natural  association  of  ideas.  If 
all  were  to  agree  in  the  details  of  an  extended  statement, 
U6 


182  ARGUMENT. 

we  should  feel  sure  that  they  had  in  some  way  learned 
from  each  other,  or  had  all  drawn  from  a  common  source. 
These  principles  are  familiar  to  the  English  and  American 
mind.  Had  the  Germans  been  accustomed  to  trial  by  jury, 
we  should  not  have  found  able  scholars  denying  the  trust- 
worthiness of  the  gospel  narratives  because  of  the  "  dis- 
crepancies "  they  present.  These  discrepancies,  nowhere 
involving  real  contradiction,  only  show  that  the  witnesses 
are  independent,  and  thus  immensely  strengthen  their  com- 
bined testimony  to  the  substantial  facts.  The  evidence  is 
also  strengthened  by  manifestly  undesigned  coincidences. 
A  great  number  of  such  coincidences,  clearly  undesigned, 
between  minor  statements  in  the  Epistles  of  Paul  and 
in  the  Acts,  have  been  exhibited  by  Paley,  in  his  cele- 
brated "  Hor^  Paulinas"  ("Hours  with  Paul  "),  a  v^ork 
which  admirably  fortifies  the  Christian  Evidences,  and 
presents  the  most  useful  lessons  as  to  the  value  of  testimony. 
And  the  less  important  in  itself  is  the  subject-matter  of 
such  coincidences,  the  more  certain  will  it  be  that  they  are 
undesigned.  In  such  a  case,  the  lightest  matters  are  often 
the  weightiest. 

The  unintentional  testimony  of  adversaries  is  frequently 
of  great  value.  Thus  the  opposers  of  Christianity  in  the 
early  centuries,  both  Heathen  and  Jewish,  in  endeavoring 
to  account  for  the  miracles  of  our  Lord  as  wrought  by 
magic,  have  shown  that  they  felt  it  impossible  to  deny  the 
reality  of  the  occurrences. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  to  be  considered  the  charac- 
ter of  the  things  attested.  Things  in  themselves  improbable 
will  of  course  require  more  testimony  in  order  to  gain  our 
credence.  Such  is  the  case  with  miracles.  Those  who 
take  the  ground  that  miracles  are  impossible,  beg  the  ques- 
tion, and  must  be  omniscient  in  order  to  make  sure  that 
their  position  is  correct.  But  miracles  are  in  themselves 
highly  improbable.     That  some  spiritual  force  should  so 


ARGUMENT.  183 

counteract  the  operation  of  great  physical  forces  as  for  a 
time  to  prevent  their  otherwise  uniform  results,  is  a  thing 
which  we  are  naturally  slow  to  believe.  This  improb- 
ability, however,  is  greatly  diminished  where  we  see  im- 
portant occasion  for  such  interference,  as  where  miracles 
are  wrought  to  authenticate  a  revelation.  The  Christian 
miracles  have  not  only  this,  but  another  advantage.  The 
character  and  teachings  of  Christ  are  inseparably  asso- 
ciated with  miracles.  He  who  denies  the  miracles  denies 
the  supernatural  origin  of  the  character  and  teachings,  and 
must  then  account  for  these  as  merely  human  and  natural, 
which  the  ablest  and  most  ingenious  infidels,  after  a  great 
variety  of  attempts,  have  utterly  failed  to  do.  Thus  the 
a  priori  question,  the  question  of  antecedent  probability,  is 
here  reduced  to  this  —  which  is  more  improbable,  that 
miracles  should  have  been  wrought,  upon  such  occasion  as 
the  introduction  of  Christianity,  or  that  the  character  and 
teachings  of  Christ  should  be  merely  human  and  of  natu- 
ral origin. 

Thus  the  general  improbability  of  miracles  is  here  much 
lessened  by  the  adequate  occasion,  and  then  is  more  than 
counterbalanced  by  a  yet  greater  improbability. 

Moreover,  tlie  testimony  of  others  to  our  Lord's  miracles 
is  not  only  strong  and  unquestionable  in  itself,  but  has  the 
unique  and  invincible  reinforcement  of  our  Lord's  own 
testimony.  Jesus  professed  to  work  miracles  ;  he  cannot 
by  possibility  have  been  deceived  on  the  subject ;  and  so, 
either  he  did  work  miracles,  or  he  was  a  bad  man.  Against 
his  character  all  the  objections  to  miracles  must  shatter, 
like  surf  against  the  rock.  And  this  is  not  arguing  in  a 
circle ;  not  proving  the  miracles  by  Christ,  and  Christ  by 
the  miracles.  The  concurrence  of  the  two  makes  it  easy 
to  account  for  both  ;  the  denial  of  the  miracles  necessitates 
conclusions  more  improbable  than  the  mira(;ulous. 

The  testimony  to  our  Lord's  resurrection  has  been  often 


184  ARGUMENT. 

and   thoroughly    discussed,*    and   shown    to   be   irrefrag- 
able. 

It  is  especially  strengthened  by  the  great  slowness  of 
belief  exhibited  by  the  disciples.  "  They  doubted,  that  we 
might  not  doubt."  t 

The  evidence  of  Christian  experience  ought  never  to  be 
overlooked.  The  believer  finds  a  change  wrought  in  him 
which  testifies  to  the  reality  and  power  of  Christianity,  and 
he  in  turn  bears  witness  to  others  that  the  change  which 
they  observe  in  him  was  wrought  in  connection  with 
believing. 

(2.)  Matters  of  opinion,  as  distinguished  from  matters 
of  fact,  might,  as  above  remarked,  be  conveniently  desig- 
nated by  the  term  authority.  But  this  term  is  sometimes 
applied  to  testimony  as  to  matters  of  fact,  especially  where 
it  is  particularly  strong  and  convincing  testimony,  and  is 
also  frequently  used  to  denote  some  combination  of  testi- 
mony as  to  fact,  and  reliable  judgment  or  opinion. 

The  so-called  authority  of  the  Fathers,  must  be  differ- 
ently regarded  in  different  cases.  As  to  the  question  which 
books  were  of  apostolic  origin,  they  afford  us  testimony, — 
though  in  the  case  of  all  but  the  earliest  it  is  not  original 
but  transmitted  testimony, — and  also  the  authority  of  their 
judgment  as  to  the  weight  of  the  entire  evidence  known  to 
them,  only  a  part  of  which  do  they  hand  down  to  us.  In 
respect  to  such  questions  they  are  known  to  have  been 
very  critical,  and  we  may  well  attach  great  value  both  to 
their  testimony  and  their  authority.  But  as  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  sacred  books,  the  question  what  Scripture 
teaches,  we   have   only  their   authority,  their  judgment. 

*  Mention  may  be  made  of  that  piquant  little  work,  Sherlock's 
"Trial  of  the  Witnesses,"  in  which  the  evidence  of  the  resurrection 
is  examined  according  to  the  forms  of  law. 

f  Some  of  the  views  here  presented  as  to  testimony,  and  some 
others,  will  be  found  in  Whately,  p.  78-104. 


ARGUMENT.  185 

Most  of  them  were  loose  interpreters,  and  they  were  all 
greatly  influenced  by  philosophical  opinions,  prejudices  of 
various  kinds,  and  especially,  with  rare  exceptions,  by  an 
extreme  fondness  for  allegory.  Except,  then,  th-  cases  in 
which  familiarity  with  Greek,  with  ancient  customs,  and 
the  like,  gives  special  weight  to  the  opinions  of  a  Father, 
their  authority  as  to  the  meaning  of  Scripture  is  not  great, 
and  in  fact  not  justly  equal  to  that  of  some  later  writers. 

The  Scriptures  themselves  are  an  authority  indeed.  All 
that  they  testify  to  be  fact  is  thereby  fully  proven,  all  that 
they  teach  as  true  and  right  is  thereby  established  and  made 
obligatory.  There  are  some  subjects  on  which  the  Bible  is 
our  sole  authority,  such  as  the  Trinity,  justification  by 
faith,  the  conditions  of  the  future  life,  and  the  positive  ordi- 
nances of  Christianity,  viz.  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper.* 
The  Christian  reasoner  should  seek  fully  to  appreciate  this 
unparalleled  authority,  and  should  heedfully  observe  its 
proper  relation  to  all  other  means  of  proof.f 

The  generally  received  opinions  of  mankind,  and  the 
proverbs  and  maxims  which  express  the  collective  judg- 
ment of  many,  have  a  greater  or  less  authority  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  case.  Those,  for  example,  which  are 
readily  attributable  to  human  superstitions  or  selfishness, 
can  claim  but  little  weight.  Proverbs,  or  what  the  com- 
mon people  call  "  old  sayings,"  are  very  often,  as  it  has 
been  remarked,  but  the  striking  expression  of  some  half 
truth,  or  the  result  of  some  hasty  generalization,  and  in 
many  cases  they  can  be  matched  by  other  sayings  to  prC' 
cisely  the  opposite  effect.J 

In  respect  to  the  whole  matter  of  evidence  and  belief 
it  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  the  relation  between  belief 
and  disbelief     As  regards  many  truths  of  Christianity,  he 

*Comp.  Porter's  Horn.  Lect.  XI. 

f  Comp.  below,  E,  and  also  §  4,  Order  of  Arguments. 
JComp.  on  Sources  of  Illustration,  chap.  7,  §  2,  (5.) 
16* 


186  ARGUMENT. 

who  disbelieves  them,  is  thereby  compelled  to  believe  some- 
thing which  shall  take  their  place.  He  who  staggers  at 
the  difficulties,  real  or  alleged,  which  attach  to  the  Chris- 
tian evidences,  must  not  forget  the  difficulties  of  infidelity. 
We  must  believe  something,  must  believe  something  as  to 
the  problems  of  religion,  and  if  we  go  away  from  Christ, 
"  to  whom  shall  we  go  ?  "  * 

C.  Induction. 

Induction  has  been  very  simply  defined  as  "  the  process 
of  drawing  a  general  rule  from  a  sufficient  number  of  par- 
ticular cases."  f  Finding  something  to  be  true  of  certain 
individual  objects,  we  conclude  that  the  same  thing  is  true 
of  the  whole  class  to  which  those  individuals  belong,  and 
afterwards  prove  it  to  be  true  of  any  new  object,  simply 
by  showing  that  that  object  belongs  to  the  same  class. 
Induction  is,  in  popular  usage,  the  commonest  form  of 
argument,  and  that  which  oftenest  involves  error.  Men  in 
general  do  not  argue  from  general  principles  or  previously 
established  truths,  nearly  so  often  as  from  examples.  These 
examples  they  indolently  observe,  and  without  extensive 
comparison  or  careful  scrutiny,  they  hastily  infer  that  what 
a  certain  person  did  is  right  for  them,  that  what  is  true  of 
certain  individuals,  or  of  all  they  happen  to  have  noticed, 
is  true  of  all  the  class.  When  they  are  strongly  impelled 
to  wish  it  so,  as  by  appetite,  interest,  or  prejudice,  and  thus 
some  powerful  feeling  combines  with  indolence,  it  is  not 
wonderful,  however  deplorable,  that  a  "hasty  induction" 
is  the  result.  In  agriculture,  or  in  domestic  medicine,  all 
manner  of  rules  are  upheld  and  followed  among  the  masses 
of  men,  on  the  ground  of  imperfect  observation  and  hasty 
induction.  In  books  of  travel,  universal  statements  are 
constantly  made  as  to  the  opinions,  usages,  and  character 
of  a  people,  which  are  founded  on  a  very  hasty  induction, 
stimulated  by  prejudice;  notable  examples  appearing  in 

*Comp.  Whately,  p.  102.        f  Fleming,  Vocab.  of  Phil.  p.  252. 


ARGUMENT.  187 

English  books  about  America,  in  many  of  uur  Eastern 
journals  when  speaking  of  the  West,  and  many  Northern 
journals  when  speaking  of  the  South ;  *  also  in  the  reports 
of  Foreign  Missions  made  by  some  infidel  or  irreligious 
travellers.  From  the  fact  that  negroes  have  never  been 
highly  civilized,  it  is  confidently  inferred  by  some  that  they 
never  can  be;  others  observe  the  gratifying  progress  in 
knowledge  made  in  a  short  time  by  a  few  colored  people, 
and  at  once  proclaim  that  they  are  naturally  a  highly 
intelligent  race.  Certain  choice  specimens  of  what  are 
called  "  uneducated "  ministers,  surpass  some  very  poor 
specimens  of  the  "educated,"  and  this  is  thought  to  prove 
that  ministerial  education  is  unnecessary ;  a  half-educated 
young  preacher  makes  a  foolish  display  of  something  he 
learned  at  college,  and  this  shows  that  education  is  injuri- 
ous. But  who  could  catalogue,  or  even  broadly  classify, 
the  instances  of  hasty  or  otherwise  unwarranted  induction, 
which  make  up  so  sadly  large  a  portion  of  human  reason- 
ing ?  Let  us  earnestly  strive,  as  a  duty  to  our  own  minds 
and  to  our  office  as  teachers  of  truth,  to  guard  against  this 
fruitful  source  of  error. 

The  question  what  is  "  a  sufficient  number  of  cases  "  to 
warrant  our  drawing  a  general  rule,  depends  upon  the 
nature  of  the  subject-matter.  In  regard  to  physical  facts, 
a  single  example  will  sometimes  suffice.  "  A  chemist  who 
had  ascertained,  in  a  single  specimen  of  gold,  its  capability 
of  combining  with  mercury,  would  noi  think  it  necessary 
to  try  the  experiment  with  several  other  specimens,  but 
would  draw  the  conclusion  concerning  those  metals  univer- 
sally and  with  certainty."  f  But  nothing  like  this  applies 
to  social  facts,  or  to  moral  and  religious  truth.  The  ob- 
servation of  a  man's  whole  life,  of  a  neighborhood  through 
many  years,  or  of  the  entire  civilized  world  for  centuries, 
has  often  led  to  false  conclusions  as  to  physical  phenomena, 

*  And  uo  doubt,  vice  versa.  f  Whately,  p.  111. 


188  ARGUMENT. 

or  as  to  questions  of  good  government  or  social  welfare.  In 
order  to  a  safe  induction,  one  must  not  merely  aggregate  a 
number  of  instances ;  he  must  analyze  and  compare  them, 
so  as  to  eliminate  what  is  merely  incidental,  and  ascertain 
the  "  material  circumstances  "  in  each  case.*  The  more 
clearly  we  can  discern  a  causal  relation,  accounting  for 
the  common  element,  the  smaller  the  number  of  instances 
necessary  to  establish  a  rule.  But  the  cause  must  be  a 
real  cause,  not  a  mere  hypothesis,  not  a  matter  having  no 
real  connection  with  the  result  in  question,  nor  an  inci- 
dental circumstance.  As  an  example  of  the  last,  it  is  fre- 
quently inferred  that  something  found  true  in  several  cases 
of  conversion,  will  be  true  in  all  cases;  but  the  question  is, 
whether  this  is  something  founded  in  the  essential  princi- 
ples of  human  nature,  or  merely  the  result  of  peculiar 
temperament,  education,  etc. 

Aristotle  says,  "Induction,  except  in  few  instances,  is  not 
proper  to  rhetoric."  f  As  the  people  so  commonly  reason 
in  this  way,  it  is  natural  and  proper  that  they  who  speak 
to  the  people  should  wish  to  do  likewise,  and  especially 
that  sophistical  or  inconsiderate  speakers  should  very  often 
introduce  hasty  inductions,  which  may  be  readily  and 
agreeably  presented,  and  will  be  easily  accepted  by  hearers 
to  whose  prejudices  they  conform.  Where  a  safe  induction 
can  be  briefly  stated,  it  is  eminently  proper  to  rhetoric ; 
yet  this  will  happen  in  comparatively  "  few  instances." 
Sometimes  an  induction  fully  and  even  formally  stated, 
will  be  appropriate;  such  occasions,  however,  are  rare. 
But  in  addition  to  proving  by  arguments  of  other  kinds, 
we  may  quite  frequently  present  examples,  cases  in  point, 
which  will  not  merely  illustrate  what  we  mean,  but  rein- 
force the  proof  by  at  least  a  probable  induction.  And  it 
is  in  the  highest  degree  important  that  we  should  know 

*  Comp.  MiU's  Logic,  Book  V,  chap.  5,  §  4. 
t  Ar.  Rhet.  II,  20,  9. 


ARGUMENT.  189 

how  to  correct  those  ten  thousand  erroneous  inductions, 
whether  in  the  arguments  of  other  public  speakers,  in 
newspapers  and  conversation,  or  in  their  own  thinking,  by 
which  the  minds  of  our  hearers  are  so  apt  to  be  misled. 

D.  Arguments  from  Analogy. 

Analogy  is  still  too  often  confounded  with  resemblance, 
notwithstanding  the  earnest  eflforts  of  Whately  and  some 
other  writers  to  confine  the  term  to  its  original  and  proper 
sense.  The  primary  meaning  of  the  word  is  'proportion, 
and  in  this  sense  only  is  it  employed  in  mathematics.  It 
denotes  not  a  resemblance  between  objects  themselves,  but 
a  correspondence  between  their  ratios  or  relations  to  other 
objects.  The  leg  of  a  table  does  not  much  resemble  the 
leg  of  an  animal,  but  they  are  analogous,  because  the  for- 
mer sustains  in  several  respects  the  same  relation  to  a  table, 
that  the  leg  sustains  to  an  animal.  The  foot  of  a  moun- 
tain is  analogous  to  that  of  a  man,  though  scarcely  at  all 
similar.  "  An  Qgg  and  a  seed  are  not  in  themselves  alike, 
but  bear  a  like  relation,  to  the  parent  bird  and  to  her  future 
nestling  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  old  and  young  plant 
on  the  other."  *  But  analogous  objects  will  frequently  be 
similar  also,  and  this  fact  has  helped  to  obscure  to  men's 
minds  the  distinction,  that  being  sometimes  carelessly 
ascribed  to  the  resemblance  which  is  really  due  to  the 
analogy.  Further,  an  analogy  is  often  all  the  more  strik- 
ing from  the  fact  that  it  exists  between  objects  which  in 
some  other*  respects  are  utterly  unlike.  First,  then,  failing 
to  see  clearly  the  difference  between  analogy  and  resem- 
blance, and  observing,  besides,  that  the  former  term  was 
often  employed  where  there  is  in  some  respects  a  great  dis- 
similarity, many  persons  have  fallen  into  the  habit  of 
calling  objects  analogous  which  are  similar  in  some 
respects,  but  have  a  recognized  difference  in  others.  Mill, 
in  his  Logic,  puts  forward  this  common  use  of  the  term  as 

*  Whately,  p.  115. 


190  ARGUMENT. 

if  it  were  legitimate,  and  unfairly  employs  it  for  the  pur- 
pose of  throwing  discredit  upon  all  arguments  from  anal- 
ogy.* Of  course  an  argument  from  a  mere  partial  resem- 
blance between  objects  can  be  worth  but  little.  But  very 
different  may  be  the  case  where  there  is  a  resemblance 
(sometimes  even  an  identity)  in  the  relation  which  two 
objects  bear  to  a  third,  or  to  two  others,  respectively. 
Understand  analogy  in  this  strict  and  proper  sense,  and 
the  argument  from  analogy  may  have  great  force.  It  is 
exceedingly  desirable  that  good  usage  should  restrict  the 
term  to  its  proper  meaning.  The  point  to  be  guarded  is, 
never  to  say  there  is  an  analogy  between  objects,  unless 
there  is  a  correspondence  (identity  or  similarity)  in  their 
relations  to  something  else,  however  like  or  however  unlike 
the  objects  themselves  may  be.  Men  are  the  slaves  of 
words  ;  and  unless  the  thoughtful  can  discern,  avoid  and 
correct  such  confusions  in  the  popular  use  of  important 
terms,  reasoning  to  a  popular  audience  will  constantly 
become  increasingly  difficult. 

It  follows  that  we  must  carefully  avoid  the  "  error  of 
concluding  the  things  in  question  to  be  alike,  because  they 
are  analogous ;  "  and  that  it  is  very  unjust,  when  a  man 
has  argued  from  the  analogy  between  two  objects,  to  charge 
him  with  having  represented  them  as  similar.  Moreover, 
the  correspondence  between  the  relations  of  objects  which 
are  seen  to  be  analogous,  must  not  be  presumed  to  extend 
to  all  their  relations.  Thus,  because  a  just  analogy  has 
been  discerned  between  the  metropolis  of  a  country,  and 
the  heart  of  the  animal  body,  it  has  been  sometimes  con- 
tended that  its  increased  size  is  a  disease,  —  that  it  may 
impede  some  of  its  most  important  functions,  or  even  be 
the  cause  of  its  dissolution.f  The  question  is,  in  whai 
respects  are  the  relations  between  the  objects  similar? 

*  Mill's  Logic,  Book  III,  chap.  20,  and  Book  V,  chap.  5,  §  6. 
f  Bishop  Copleston,  in  Whately,  p.  116,  and  p.  492  ff. 


ARGUMENT.  191 

A  large  proportion  of  the  metaphors  -we  employ,  rest, 
not  upon  resemblance,  but  upon  analogy.  E.  g.  "  He  is 
the  pillar  of  the  State ;  "  "  Paris  is  the  heart  df  France." 
All  mental  and  spiritual  states  and  operations  are  expressed 
by  terms  borrowed,  by  analogy,  from  the  physical ;  all  that 
we  know  of  the  future  life,  by  terms  derived  from  analogous 
objects  or  relations  in  this  life.  The  sense  of  such  meta- 
phorical expressions  has  been  in  many  cases  fixed  and 
defined  by  usage,  so  that,  as  commonly  employed,  they 
will  not  mislead ;  but  whenever  we  begin  to  reason  upon 
them,  great  care  must  be  taken  lest  w^e  extend  the  analogy 
to  matters  which  it  does  not  really  embrace.  So  with  the 
terms  used  to  describe  the  attributes  of  God,  and  his  rela- 
tions to  his  creatures.  Thus  we  call  God  a  Father,  and  in 
certain  respects  Christ  reasons  from  earthly  fathers  to 
Him.  Yet  if  we  infer  from  a  father's  forgiving  his  child 
upon  repentance,  without  satisfaction,  that  our  Heavenly 
Father  will  and  must  forgive  us  upon  repentance,  without 
need  of  an  Atonement,  w^e  extend  the  analogy  more  widely 
than  is  warranted.  God  is  a  Father,  but  is  also  a  King ; 
and  his  government  is  not  a  system  of  imperfect  expedi- 
ents, but  must  consult  the  requirements  of  absolute  justice. 

Has  the  argument  from  analogy  any  positive  force  ?  It 
may  certainly  afford  a  probable  proof  of  positive  truth. 
When  two  objects  are  observed  to  be  analogous  in  many 
important  respects,  it  is  assuredly  more  or  less  probable 
that  they  are  also  analogous  in  some  other  respect  not 
observed.  But  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  this  can  in  any 
case  be  an  absolute  proof.  Many  results  of  induction,  as 
we  have  seen  above,  are  simply  in  a  high  degree  probable ; 
and  they  become  certain  only  when,  besides  observing  that 
the  instances  examined  are  all  similar  in  a  certain  respect, 
we  can  also  discern  some  cause  of  that  similarity,  which 
will  operate  also  in  the  instances  not  examined.  Now  the 
same  thing  must  hold  in  the  case  of  analogy.     If  two 


182  ARGUMENT. 

objects  should  correspond  in  all  their  relations  to  certain 
other  objects  so  far  as  we  can  examine,  and  if  we  were 
able  to  discern  some  cause  of  the  correspondence,  such  as 
must  produce  a  like  correspondence  in  other  relations  not 
examined,  then  we  might  infer  with  certainty  that  in  any 
of  these  other  relations  they  do  correspond.  In  many 
cases  of  Induction,  a  cause,  or  at  least  an  explanation,  of 
the  common  element  can  be  found.  We  leave  it  a  ques- 
tion whether  the  same  can  ever  be  done  in  cases  of  Analogy. 
Still,  an  argument  from  analogy  will  often  add  its  force  to 
that  of  other  proofs,  and  will  make  a  result  more  or  less 
probable,  even  where  no  other  proof  exists. 
'  But  chiefly  for  negative  purposes,  in  the  refutation  of 
objections,  is  the  argument  from  analogy  of  frequent  and 
high  utility ,  "like  those  weapons,  which  though  they  can- 
not kill  the  enemy,  will  ward  his  blows."  *  Butler,  in 
his  immortal  work,  has  with  great  power  refuted  objec- 
tions to  natural  religion  by  the  analogy  of  nature,  and 
objections  to  revealed  religion  by  the  analogy  of  Provi- 
dence. If  men  say  it  would  be  unjust  in  God  to  punish 
them  for  violating  his  law  when  they  did  not  believe,  or 
did  not  certainly  know,  that  it  was  his  law,  we  point  them 
to  the  fact  that  this  holds  of  physical  laws  — that  he  who 
takes  poison  will  be  killed,  even  though  he  did  not  know, 
or  did  not  believe,  that  it  was  poison.  If  they  object  that 
God  could  not  with  propriety  make  salvation  dependent 
upon  belief  of  the  gospel,  when  there  may  be  some  doubt 
as  to  whether  the  gospel  is  true,  we  remind  them  that 
bodily  life  is  often  dependent  upon  sending  for  the  physi- 
cian, though  there  may  be  very  great  doubt  as  to  whether 
he  will  understand  and  remedy  the  disease ;  we  have  to 
risk  life  upon  a  probability,  or  take  the  consequences.  If 
they  object  to  the  doctrine  of  Original  Sin,  as  incompatible 
with  God's  goodness,  we  point  to  inherited  disease,  inherited 

*  Campbell,  Phil,  of  Rhet.  p.  76. 


ARGUMENT.  193 

proclivities  to  vice,  inherited  dishonor.  And  sc  as  to  the 
doctrine  of  Election.  From  the  great  inequalities  which 
exist  among  men  as  to  native  physical  powers,  intellect, 
moral  character,  and  the  influences  which  have  surrounded 
their  childhood  as  well  as  their  age,  we  could  not  with  any- 
thing more  than  probability  infer,  as  a  positive  proposition, 
that  God  would  elect  some  men  to  be  saved,  and  omit  others. 
As  a  positive  argument  it  would  be  weakened  by  the  fact 
that  we  cannot  be  certain  of  a  universal  analogy  between 
God's  operations  in  the  sphere  of  creation  and  providence, 
and  his  operations  in  the  sphere  of  grace ;  and  also  by  the 
fact  that  the  widest  inequalities  of  earthly  life  are  sligl\t 
compared  with  the  difference  between  salvation  and  dam- 
nation. But  when  to  the  doctrine  of  Election  as  taught  in 
Scripture  men  offer  the  objection  that  it  is  inconsistent  with 
the  Divine  justice  to  make  such  a  distinction,  we  refute  the 
objection  by  pointing  to  the  immense  distinctions  which  he 
certainly  does  make  in  this  life. 

When  examples  are  invented  to  furnish  argument  (and 
not  merely  explanation,  ornament,  etc.),  it  must  always  be 
the  argument  from  analogy.  It  is  only  necessary  that  the 
supposed  case  should  be  probable.  Induction  from  unreal 
examples  would  of  course  be  w^orthless ;  but  merely  prob- 
able cases  may  afford  an  analogy  to  the  matter  in  hand, 
which  will  be  in  a  high  degree  convincing.* 

The  analogy  of  real  and  of  invented  examples  is  some- 
times employed  not  to  prove,  but  merely  to  explain,  or  to 
render  interesting.f 

Of  the  four  great  Varieties  of  Argument  wdiich  have 
now  been  discussed,  the  first,  argument  a  priori,  stands 
apart  as  distinct  from  the  rest.  All  other  arguments  are 
iivided  by  Aristotle  -  (followed  by  Whately,  and  others) 

*See  Whately,  p.  129  fi. 

f  As  to  the  objectionable  phrase,  the  analogy  of  Faith,  see  note 
to  chap.  2,  §  4. 
17 


194  ARGTMEXT. 

into  arsrument^  irom  sign,  and  arguments  from  exampU, 
The  most  important  class  of  arguments  from  sign  are  those 
from  Ic.<timonij :  and  nearly  all  arguments  from  example 
fall  either  under  the  head  oi  Inductioi  or  ofAnalopy. 

E.  Deduction  from  established  truth. 

Every  species  of  argument  involves  a  deduction.  But 
there  are  many  deductions  which  do  not  belong  to  any  of 
the  varieties  we  have  been  considering  —  deductions  not 
from  sign  nor  example,  not  from  a  cause  or  necessary 
truth,  but  from  a  general  truth,  which  has  been  in  some 
way  established.  What  we  then  do  is  to  show  that  this 
truth  includes  some  other,  or  by  its  combination  "vvith 
similar  established  truths  leads  to  some  other;  and  these 
processes  may  be  repeated,  so  as  to  produce  a  series. 
Much  of  our  reasoning  is  obviously  of  this  character.  We 
do  not  stop  with  the  truth  furnished  by  cause,  sign,  or 
e:sample.  but  proceed  to  develop- its  contents,  or  combine 
it  with  other  truths  and  show  the  result.  And  besides 
what  is  common  to  all  men,  the  reasoning  of  preachers 
possesses  a  large  element  of  this  kind,  in  its  constant 
deductions  or  "  inferences  '*  from  the  teachings  of  Scripture. 

Xow  such  deductions  must  be  made  with  great  care. 
The  reply  often  heard  in  conversational  discussion,  "  Ah, 
but  that  is  only  an  inference  of  yours,"  shows  the  common 
feeling  as  to  the  danger  that  our  inferences  will  be  far  less 
certain  than  the  truths  from  which  we  infer.  There  is 
obviously  need  for  great  care  that  the  deduction  shall  be 
strictly  logical.  But  another  thing  is  important.  In 
Political  Economy,  it  is  found  that  the  results  deduced  by 
abstract  reasoning  from  general  principles  must  at  every 
step  be  compared  with  facts,  or  they  will  at  length  be 
found  to  have  gone  astray  from  actual  truth.  And 
similarly  in  religious  reasoning.  We  can  very  seldom 
take  a  general  truth  and  make  a  series  of  deductions  from 
it  as  is  done  in  Geometrv,  and  feel  safe  as  to  the  results. 


AEGUMZyT.  195 

We  must  constantly  compare  with  tl  e  facts  of  existence, 
and  with  the  teachings  of  Scriptore.  The  iove  of  purelv 
abstract  reafioniog  leads  many  minds  astraj  as  to  religious 
tmth.  The  idea  of  establidiing  tome  truth  of  religion  by 
"a  "perfect  demonstration"  is  commonl j ddnsiye.  Hmnan 
life  is  not  reallr  controlled  by  demonstrated  truth,  as  to 
this  world  or  the  next.  We  must  be  content  with  those 
practical  certainties  which  the  oonditioiis  of  existence 
allow  US  to  attain ;  and  while  constantly  drawing  infer- 
ences, as  it  is  right  we  shoold  do,  most  be  content  to 
compare  them  with  met  and  Scripture,  to  make  sure  tiiat 
they  are  correct. 

"  Pure  reasoning  handles  ideas  and  not  mcts.  It  is  a 
sort  of  geometry  of  inteUectnal  space.    This  geometzj, 

however,  is  less  certain  :r-in  :"i^ ne  import  of  agns 

here  being  less   mYsniiLZi-^.      IZ  r  recessity  of  not 

coursing  entirely  through  ih^  t  . .  —  oeaiding  often 

to  the  earth,  to  set  our  feei  :  i  :  -^,  we  run  the 

risk  of  proYing  too  much,  i:,  1  ^-.1.  the  sense 

of  reality.  At  the  end  of  tl^  ii  :  i  :  i ^gs,  whai 
the  reason  of  the  L-.'^r-.-  -      i. - 

more  intimate  thai.    . ,  .._„  ^.^    ^_. 

against  your  conclusic^ 

F.  Certain /omw  of  ^=^^^l.-" 

We  have  hitherto  consii-:-:  i  f 

argument  as  to  their    ^    ^ : :        i :    .  2:  : 

the /gtttw which  arguiLTi:^   ^i-.r   -:    z  :l  .:  _  _  -li 

character,  often  assoiir  :  _.  1  s^n  ::  ill  :::  :_  i  ^ 
and  explanation. 

The  argument  afortirjri  fr:ii  5:r:ngcr  gr:  lI:  iji:-sr= 
that  something  is  true  i^  i  .r-s  -  r  bable  cas^  z-.--  ::  5_-- 
posed,  and  then  iiir'^-  :1 1:  n  _  :.  ii:rr  c??-!^  -  :^:::  :: 
be  true  in  a  more     :  T    :_:        Zl:-.   ::::_    :       j__  i: 

is  a  fevorite  ere  "  :;    iil    ^  -r^r"  .--i  :  :_i.d  in 


196  ARGUMENT. 

the  teachings  of  our  Lord  and  the  apostles.  "  If  ye,  then, 
being  evil,  know  how  to  give  good  things  to  your  children, 
how  much  more  will  your  Heavenly  Father,"  etc.  "  If 
God  so  clothe  the  grass  of  the  field,  which  to-day  is,  and 
to-morrow  is  cast  into  the  oven,  shall  he  not  much  more 
clothe  you,  O  ye  of  little  faith  !  "  "If  they  do  these  things 
in  the  green  tree,  what  shall  be  done  in  the  dry  ? "  (Luke 
23  :  3L)  "He  that  spared  not  his  own  Son,  but  delivered 
him  up  for  us  all,  how  shall  he  not  with  him  also  freely 
give  us  all  things?"  (Rom.  8  :  32.)  "For  if  the  word 
spoken  by  angels  was  steadfast,  and  every  transgression 
and  disobedience  received  a  just  recompense  of  reward ; 
how  shall  we  escape,  if  we  neglect  so  great  salvation,  which 
at  the  first  began  to  be  spoken  by  the  Lord  (i.  e.  the  Lord 
Jesus),  and  was  confirmed  unto  us,"  etc.  (Heb.  2  :  2-4.) 
"For  the  time  is  come  that  judgment  must  begin  at  the 
house  of  God :  and  if  it  first  begin  at  us,  what  shall  the 
end  be  of  them  that  obey  not  the  gospel  of  God  !  And  if 
the  righteous  scarcely  be  saved,  where  shall  the  ungodly 
and  the  sinner  appear?"  (1  Pet.  4  :  17,  18.)  *  These  are 
but  a  few  examples  out  of  many.  They  should  impress  us 
with  the  suitableness  of  such  arguments  in  addressing  the 
popular  mind. 

The  argument  from  Progressive  Approach  has  been 
pointed  out  and  well  illustrated  by  Whately.  In  arguing 
the  being  of  a  God  from  the  general  consent  of  mankind, 
we  observe  that  m  proportion  as  men  have  become  culti- 
vated and  civilized,  their  ideas  of  the  unity  and  moral 
excellence  of  the  Deity  have  risen  higher ;  that  there  is  a 
progressive  tendency  towards  the  most  exalted  Monothe- 
ism, which  is  hence  inferred  to  be  true.  Or  as  regards  reli- 
gious tolerance  :  "  In  every  age  and  country,  as  a  general 
rule,  tolerant  principles  have  (however  imperfectly)  gained 
ground  wherever  scriptural  knowledge  has  gained  ground. 

-  See  Vinet,  p.  193-6. 


ARGUMENT.  197 

And  a  presumption  is  thus  afforded  that  a  still  further  ad- 
vance of  the  one  would  lead  to  a  corresponding  advance 
in  the  other."  * 

The  dilemma  presents  two  assumptions,  of  such  a  char- 
acter that  one  or  the  other  must  be  true,  and  yet  which- 
ever is  considered  true,  there  will  follow  the  result  proposed. 
Such  was  Gamaliel's  argument  (Acts  5  :  38-9)  :  "  If  this 
counsel  or  this  work  be  of  men,  it  will  come  to  nought : 
but  if  it  be  of  God,  ye  cannot  overthrow  it."  It  must  be 
either  from  men  or  from  God,  and  in  either  case  the  con- 
clusion would  be,  "  Refrain  from  these  men,  and  let  them 
alone."  t  The  dilemma  is  most  commonly,  but  not 
exclusively  employed  for  the  purpose  of  refutation. 

In  like  manner,  the  reductio  ad  absurdum  (reduction  to 
an  absurdity)  is  most  frequently,  but  not  always  used  for 
refutation.^  When  it  is  argued  that  we  ought  not  to  send 
the  gospel  to  the  heathen,  because  if  they  reject  it,  their 
guilt  and  doom  will  be  so  much  aggravated,  we  answer  that 
upon  that  principle,  the  gospel  ought  not  to  be  preached  to 
the  destitute  at  home,  nor  to  any  one,  and  it  is  a  pity  there 
ever  was  a  gospel.  The  principle  which  necessarily  leads 
to  such  an  absurdity,  must  be  in  itself  erroneous. 

The  argument  ex  coneesso,  from  something  conceded  by 
the  opponent,  or  known  to  be  admitted  by  the  persons 
addressed,  may  be  employed  not  only  for  refutation,  but 
also  to  establish  positive  truth,  when  we  are  satisfied  that 
the  thing  admitted  is  really  true. 

The  argument  ad  hominem  is  legitimately  employed  only 
m  refutation,  and  will  be  explained  under  that  head.|| 

Arguments  of  different  kinds,  as  to  nature  or  form,  will 
often  be  combined  in  one  complex  argument. 

*Whately,  p.  104-9. 

f  We  are  not  here  inquiring  whether  Gamaliel's  assumptions  are 
correct. 

X  Comp.  above,  g  1    3.  ||  See  below,  §  3. 

17* 


198  ARGUMENT. 

Different  speakers  will  prefer  one  or  another  species 
of  argument  according  to  their  mental  constitution  and 
other  circumstances,  and  a  man  will  be  apt  to  manage  best 
that  which  he  prefers.  But  this  preference  should  never 
become  exclusive,  or  it  will  make  the  mind  one-sided. 
Besides,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  what  species  of  argu- 
ment will  best  suit  the  mental  constitution,  intelligence 
and  tastes  of  the  audience.  We  should  therefore  habitu- 
ally seek  to  draw  arguments  from  a  variety  of  sources,  and 
throw  them  into  various  forms. 


§    3.      REFUTATION. 

(1.)  It  is  frequently  a  sufficient  refutation  of  error  to 
prove  the  opposite  truth ;  and  this  is  then  greatly  to  be 
preferred.  The  error,  without  mention,  just  falls  away, 
and  is  thought  of  no  more.  But  such  a  course  will  not 
always  suffice.  The  arguments  of  adversaries  must  often 
be  met,  and  objections  to  the  truth  must  still  oftener  be 
removed.  In  controversial  sermons,  though  the  preacher 
may  have  no  actual  antagonist,  yet  there  are  arguments 
well  known  to  be  used  in  favor  of  a  different  view,  and 
which  he  must  refute ;  "  that  he  may  be  able  with  the 
sound  teaching  both  to  exhort,  and  to  refute  the  gain- 
sayers.      For   there   are   many  unruly  vain   talkers   and 

deceivers whose  mouths  must  be  stopped."  *     Right 

feelings  towards  those  who  are  in  error  will  render  this 
necessary  task  a  painful  one.  But  naturally,  all  men  take 
pleasure  in  conflict.  "We  are  more  inclined  to  refute 
than  to  prove,  to  destroy  than  to  build  up.  It  is  more 
easy,  more  flattering  to  self-love,  more  in  accordance  with 
our  natural  passions.  Every  one  is  eloquent  in  anger; 
love  and  peace  seldom  make  men  eloquent,  "f  The 
audience,  too,  are  thus  readily  aroused.      Everybody  will 

*Tit.  1;  9-11.  f  Vinet,  p.  177. 


ARGUMENT.  199 

run  to  see  a  fight.  And  he  who  assumes  the  character 
of  a  fearless  defender  of  unpopular  di^trines,  a  martyr- 
spirit,  readily  gains  from  the  unthinking  a  species  of 
sympathy  and  admiration.  These  things  being  so,  we 
must  carefully  guard  against  the  temptation  to  assail 
others  where  it  is  not  really  necessary.  We  must  keep 
uppermost  in  our  minds  the  desire  to  establish  truth,  and 
let  refutation  be  strictly  and  manifestly  subordinate.* 

But  apart  from  controversy,  and  where  we  have  no  real 
antagonist,  there  will  be,  in  preaching,  very  frequent  oc- 
casion for  refuting  objections  to  the  truth  we  advocate. 
It  is  better,  whenever  consistent  with  the  known  facts,  to 
treat  these  as  the  objections,  not  of  a  caviller,  but  of 
an  honest  inquirer.  Instead  of  assailing  the  supposed  ob- 
jector and  attempting  to  conquer  him,  let  us  approach 
him  kindly  and  seek  to  win  him  to  the  truth. 

(2.)  In  moral  reasoning,  one  cannot  always,  as  in  Geo- 
metry, give  a  complete  refutation  of  all  objections.  Some- 
times they  are  too  weak  to  be  refuted.  He  who  does  not 
at  once  see  their  absurdity  or  nothingness,  can  scarcely  be 
made  to  see  it  at  all.  You  pierce  the  phantom  through 
and  through  with  your  sword,  but  there  it  stands.  Or  you 
perceive  that  the  objection  is  really  a  pretence  or  a  delu- 
sion on  the  part  of  men  who  are  opposed  to  the  truth 
on  grounds  they  do  not  state  —  perhaps  the  last  refuge 
of  one  determined  not  to  yield.  Alas  I  for  the  frequency 
with  which  we  are  reminded  that 

"A  man  convinced  against  Ms  will 
Is  of  the  same  opinion  still." 

Besides,  there  are  objections  to  everything.  Whately 
was  fond  of  quoting  a  saying  of  Dr.  Johnson,  "There  are 
objections  to  a  plenum  and  objections  to  a  vacuum ;  yet 
one  or  the  other  must  be  true."     The  reason  for  believing 

*  Comp.  on  Polemical  Subjects,  chap.  3,  ^  2. 


200  ARGUMENT. 

any  proposition  in  moral  truth  consists  of  the  arguments 
in  favor  of  it,  minus  the  objections,  refuted  as  far  as 
practicable.  "The  objection  perhaps  may  be  unanswer- 
able, and  yet  may  safely  be  allowed,  if  it  can  be  shown 
that  more  and  weightier  objections  lie  against  every  other 
supposition.  This  is  a  most  important  caution  for  those 
who  are  studying  the  Evidences  of  Religion.  Let  the 
opposer  of  them  be  called  on,  instead  of  confining  himself 
to  detached  cavils,  and  saying  'how  do  you  answer  this?' 
and  *  how  do  you  explain  that  ? '  to  frame  some  consistent 
hypothesis  to  account  for  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
by  human  means  ;  and  then  to  consider  whether  there  are 
more  or  fewer  difficulties  in  his  hypothesis  than  in  the 
other."  * 

It  follows  that  we  must  not  waste  time  in  the  refutation 
of  trifling  objections  ;  nor  mention  objections  which  would 
never  trouble  the  minds  of  the  hearers,  and  which  furnish 
no  sufficient  ground  for  doubting  the  truth ;  nor  attempt 
to  refute  objections  unless  we  can  do  so  satisfactorily.  It 
is  sometimes  better  to  say,  "Well,  that  is  an  objection  to 
my  proposition,  I  grant ;  but  then  the  proposition  must  be 
true,  as  the  arguments  in  favor  of  it  show."  If  the 
objections,  or  the  arguments  for  a  contradictory  pro- 
position, are  really  convincing,  it  is  the  manifest  duty  of 
one  who  loves  truth,  and  would  seem  especially  incum- 
bent on  a  preacher,  to  acknowledge  himself  convinced,  and 
so  far  as  this  matter  goes,  to  change  his  ground. 

(3.)  When  objections  are  discussed,  they  should  be 
stated  in  full  force.  This  is  simply  just,  and  is  also  obvi- 
ously good  policy.  "  Express  it  precisely  as  you  believe 
it  to  be  in  the  hearer's  mind,  so  that,  listening  to  your 
exposition  of  it,  he  may  say  to  himself,  '  That  is  exactly 
my  objection ;  that  is  precisely  my  difficulty,  and  I  should 

*  Whately,  p.  188.     Comp.  above,  on  Testimony.  ^  2,  B. 


ARGUMENT.  201 

wish  very  much  to  hear  how  the  preacher  will  clear  it 


up'"* 


(4.)  Refutation,  whether  of  an  erroneous  proposition,  or 
of  an  objection  to  the  truth,  will  be  accomplished  by  show- 
ing either  that  the  terms  are  ambiguous,  the  premises  false, 
the  reasoning  unsound,  or  the  conclusion  irrelevant.  Some- 
times that  which  is  presented  as  an  objection  may  be  very 
true,  but  may  not  really  conflict  with  the  proposition  under 
consideration. 

"  In  all  cases  in  which  it  seems  necessary,  we  must  divide 
the  difficulty.  Refutation  ordinarily  gains  by  a  division 
of  the  objection.  It  is  seldom  that  one  reply  alone  can 
demolish  directly  with  a  single  stroke,  all  parts  of  the 

error The  hearer  sees  you   conquer  many  times  in 

succession  ;  he  perceives  that  there  are  many  errors  on  the 
other  side,  and  many  truths  on  yours."  f 

"  We  must  know  how  to  take  the  offensive,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, turn  the  objection  into  a  proof.  Prolonging  the 
defensive,  enfeebles  us;  and  to  defend  ourselves  to  advan- 
tage, we  must  make  the  attack.  Great  preachers  have 
always  observed  this  rule.  In  the  error  which  we  decom- 
pose or  attack,  we  should  find  the  very  germs  of  truth."  % 
The  lamented  Addison  Alexander,  in  his  sermons  and  com- 
mentaries, exhibits  remarkable  skill  in  thus  turning  objec- 
tions into  proof. 

(5.)  Refutation  of  an  error  is  sometimes  strengthened 
by  showing  how  the  error  may  have  originated.  Thus  an 
opposer  of  Infant  Baptism,  after  disposing  of  such  passages 
from  the  New  Testament  as  may  have  been  presented  in 
proof  of  it,  breaks  the  force  of  any  argument  derived  from 
its  present  and  long-continued  existence,  by  pointing  out 
how  it  may  have  arisen  in  the  second  or  third  century.^ 

(6.)  It  is  often  advantageous  to  have  recourse  to  indirect 
refutation.     The  principal   species   of   this,   reductio   ad 

*  Potter's  Sacred  Eloquence,  p.  179.       f  Vinet,  p.  179.      X  ^^- 


202  ARGUMENT. 

absurdum,  has  been  already  discussed.  *  The  argument 
ad  hominem,  '  to  the  man,'  can  scarcely  ever  be  properly 
employed  to  establish  positive  truth.  An  appeal  to  the 
hearer's  peculiar  opinions,  position,  or  mode  of  reasoning, 
in  order  to  make  him  believe  something,  is  almost  neces- 
sarily improper.  But  in  refutation,  in  dealing  with  those 
unreasonable  objectors  "whose  mouths  must  be  stopped," 
it  is  perfectly  appropriate  and  may  be  highly  effective. 
Such  is  our  Lord's  argument  in  Matt.  12  ;  27,  "If  I  by 
Beelzebub  cast  out  devils,  by  whom  do  your  children  cast 
them  out  ? "  He  is  not  saying  that  the  disciples  of  the 
Pharisees  really  do  cast  out  demons,  but  simply  shutting 
their  mouths  by  an  argument  ad  hominem.  So  likewise  in 
1  Cor.  15  :  29,  "  Else  what  shall  they  do  which  are  bap- 
tized for  the  dead,  if  the  dead  rise  not  at  all  ?  why  are 
they  then  baptized  for  them  ?  "  the  apostle  silences  certain 
objectors  to  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  by  pointing  to 
the  superstitious  practice  encouraged  by  them,  of  baptizing 
living  persons  in  behalf  of  those  who  had  died  unbaptized, 
—  a  practice  known  to  have  existed  in  the  next  century. 
He  does  not  present  this  as  an  argument  to  prove  the  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection  true,  but  simply  as  an  ad  hominem 
argument  to  stop  the  mouths  of  unreasonable  opponents. 
And  his  own  condemnation  of  the  superstitious  practice 
need  not  be  stated,  for  at  Corinth  it  would  be  well  under- 
stood. This  is  one  of  the  points  to  be  guarded  in  using 
the  form  of  argument  in  question ;  we  must  not  seem  to 
approve  the  position  or  practice  to  which  we  appeal.  We 
must  also  take  pains  to  use  the  argument  fairly.  "  It  does 
not  follow  from  a  man's  having  been  of  a  different  opinion 
formerly,  that  he  is  wrong  in  thinking  as  he  now  does.  A 
man  is  often  reproached  for  making  progress,  when  re- 
proached with  inconsistency."  f 

*  See  above,  §  2,  F. 

f  Yinet,  p.  185.     See  his  whole  discussion,  p.  183-6. 


ARGUMENT.  203 

It  is  sometimes  convenient  to  show  that  an  opponent's 
premise  is  wrong,  by  showing  that  it  "  proves  too  much," 
i.  e.  "  that  it  proves,  besides  the  conclusion  drawn,  another, 
which  is  manifestly  inadmissible."  * 

Irony,  as  a  means  of  making  an  opponent  or  an  error 
ridiculous,  is  certainly  allowable  in  serious  discourse,  for 
we  have  a  famous  example  in  Elijah's  address  to  the  priests 
of  Baal.f  It  is  employed  with  great  effect  against  certain 
modern  forms  of  infidelity,  in  Rogers'  Eclipse  of  Faith. 
Though  it  be  not  true  that  "  ridicule  is  the  test  of  truth," 
it  is  certainly  a  very  effective  means  of  refuting  preten- 
tious falsehood.  If  a  serious  subject  is  involved,  the 
persons  refuted  by  means  of  irony  will  of  course  complain 
loudly  that  it  is  irreverent,  and  some  good  people  may 
think  likewise ;  but  this  only  makes  it  proper  to  be  care- 
ful that  we  do  not  say  anything  which  really  does  make  a 
serious  subject  ridiculous.  It  is  obvious  that  an  ironical 
passage  in  a  sermon  ought,  save  in  very  peculiar  cases,  to 
be  quite  brief.  J 

Akin  to  the  indirect  method  of  refutation,  is  a  certain 
sophistical  method,  "consisting  in  counter-objections  urged 
against  something  else  which  is  taken  for  granted  to  be, 

though    it   is  not,   the   only  alternative It  is  thus 

that  a  man  commonly  replies  to  the  censure  passed  on  any 
vice  he  is  addicted  to,  by  representing  some  other  vice  as 
worse ;  e.  g.  if  he  is  blamed  for  being  a  sot,  he  dilates  on 
the  greater  enormity  of  being  a  thief;  as  if  there  were  any 
need  he  should  be  either."  ||  So  likewise  when  we  object  to 
the  popular  dancing,  there  are  those  who  reply  that  it 
would  be  greatly  worse  to  spend  the  time  in  talking 
scandal. 

(7.)  Too  elaborate  and  vehement  refutation  may  some- 
times defeat  its  own  design.     Not  only  because  it  arouses 

*  Whately,  p.  182.  f  1  Kings,  18 :  27. 

X  Comp.  Whately,  p.  183-7.  [1  Whately,  p.  188-9. 


204  ARGUMENT. 

deep-seated  prejudices,  but  because,  by  overwhelming  and 
utterly  crushing  an  error,  we  may  make  persons  unwilling 
to  acknowledge  that  an  opinion  they  have  entertained  is 
BO  preposterous,  and  therefore  unwilling  to  admit  that  the 
refutation  is  just.*  Thus  in  condemning  the  "  accommoda- 
tion" of  texts,  if  one  grows  indignant,  and  declares  the 
practice  to  be  inexpressibly  foolish  and  wicked,  some  of 
those  who  have  indulged  in  it  are  repelled,  and  refuse  to 
acknowledge  that  it  is  wrong  at  all. 

(8.)  A  successful  refutation  is  apt  to  carry  the  sym- 
pathies of  the  hearers,  as  men  usually  sympathize  with  the 
victorious.  And  influenced  by  this  feeling,  they  often  over- 
estimate the  extent  of  the  refutation.  All  the  arguments 
advanced  in  favor  of  a  proposition  may  have  been  refuted, 
and  yet  the  proposition  may  be  true,  on  grounds  not  men- 
tioned. Still,  if  the  advocates  of  a  view  are  able  men,  it 
is  natural  to  suppose  that  they  have  not  omitted  the  only 
convincing  arguments  on  their  side,  and  so  there  is  not 
here  any  great  danger  of  error.  But  in  another  way  there 
is  very  great  danger.  When  the  opponent  readily  and 
overwhelmingly  refutes  some  of  the  arguments  presented, 
and  then  with  a  lofty  carelessness  remarks  that  in  like 
manner  all  the  rest  could  be  refuted  if  it  were  worth  while, 
the  great  mass  of  men  will  believe  it  to  be  even  so,  and 
regard  him  as  triumphant.  Hence  it  is  of  great  importance 
not  to  employ  doubtful  proofs,  and  in  presenting  those 
which  aflford  only  a  probability  or  a  presumption  to  point 
out  distinctly  that  such  is  the  case.  Otherwise  the  sophis- 
tical adversary  will  refute  the  weak  proofs,  or  show  that 
the  merely  probable  ones  establish  nothing,  and  then  if  he 
does  not  assert,  will  leave  it  to  be  taken  for  granted,  that 
our  other  proofs  are  of  the  same  character. 

This  has  often  happened  with  reference  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  Divinity  of  Christ.      Every  passage  which  at  all 

*  Comp.  Whately,  p.  193-8. 


ARGUMENT.  205 

appears  to  teach  the  doctrine  being  adduced,  the  Socinian 
can  show  that  many  of  them  are  exceedingly  doubtful,  and 
many  others  can  be  differently  understood,  until  unthinking 
persons  would  suppose  tha,t  he  had  completely  destroyed 
the  argument,  or  reduced  it  to  but  a  few  passages.  Kow 
if  one  wishes  a  climax,  he  may  begin  by  showing  that  a  great 
number  of  passages  seem  to  involve  the  doctrine,  and  that 
many  others  make  it  extremely  probable,  and  then  produce 
some  that  are  conclusive.  But  it  is  often  better,  especially 
in  a  sermon,  to  present  a  few  strong  proofs,  and  then  point 
out  in  general  that  this  doctrine  lies  everywhere  on  the 
surface  of  the  New  Testament,  so  that  the  common  reader 
naturally  gets  the  idea ;  nay,  that  it  pervades  the  whole 
warp  and  woof  of  New  Testament  teaching,  which  would  be 
torn  to  fragments  in  removing  it.*  So  in  all  other  dis- 
courses upon  topics  involving  much  controversy.  Take  no 
ground  which  you  cannot  hold.  It  may  look  very  brave 
to  assume  an  advanced  position,  but  if  you  are  flanked  out 
of  it  there  will  be  a  great  shout  of  triumph.  And  distin- 
guish carefully  between  proofs  which  yield  a  presumption 
— for  that  purpose  they  are  very  useful  —  and  those  which 
are  regarded  as  conclusive.  Even  where  there  is  no  con- 
troversy, duty  to  one's  own  mind  and  to  the  mind  of  his 
hearers,  and  devotion  to  the  truth,  require  that  no  greater 
stress  should  ever  seem  to  be  laid  on  any  argument  than  it 
deserves.  "  One  false  or  foolish  proof  lays  the  whole  dis- 
course open  to  suspicion ;  it  inspires  our  hearers  with  a 
contempt  for  ourselves  and  our  doctrine,  and  it  is  fre- 
quently the  only  part  which  they  retain  and  of  which  they 
speak."  f 

In  consequence  of  the  ignorance,  the  slothfulness,  the 

*  With  reference  to  this  important  doctrine  the  suggestion  may- 
be repeated,  that  the  mode  of  discussion  proper  to  a  theological 
treatise  often  requires  great  modification  in  a  popular  discourse. 

t  Potter,  Sac.  Eloq.  p.  151. 
18 


206  ARGUMENT. 

prejudices,  and  the  frequent  deceitfulness  of  men,  human 
reasoning  greatly  abounds  in  Fallacies.  We  must  learn  to 
avoid  these  ourselves,  and  to  detect  and  expose  them  in 
others.  For  this  purpose  it  is  especially  impor4ant  to  study 
systems  of  Logic,  as  training  the  mind  to  distinguish  be- 
tween sound  and  fallacious  reasoning.  It  is  painful  when 
one  feels  that  there  is  something  wrong  in  an  argument, 
but  cannot  see  what ;  or  when  he  sees  it  himself,  but  cannot 
explain  the  fallacy  to  others.  This  explanation,  it  may  be 
remarked,  is  often  best  made  by  constructing  a  similar 
argument  out  of  matter  more  familiar  to  the  common 
mind.* 

§4.      ORDER   OF   ARGUMENTS. 

The  order  of  arguments  is  scarcely  less  important  than 
their  individual  force.  The  superiority  of  an  army  to  a 
mob  is  hardly  greater  than  the  advantage  of  a  well-ar- 
ranged discourse  over  a  mere  mass  of  scattered  thoughts. 
The  question  what  arrangement  is  to  be  preferred  in  any 
particular  case,  must  depend  upon  a  variety  of  circum- 
stances. Here,  as  everywhere  in  Rhetoric,  we  can  only  lay 
down  rules  as  to  what  is  generally  best.f 

It  is  obvious  that  the  several  distinct  arguments  should 
be  kept  separate.  But  in  the  practice  of  inexperienced 
reasoners  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  portions  of  two  different 
arguments  combined,  and  two  parts  of  the  same  argument 
separated  by  the  interposition  of  other  matter. 

The  consideration  which  must  principally  determine  the 
order  of  arguments  is  their  natural  relation  to  each  other. 
"  Some  proofs  are  explained  by  others,  which  must  be  pre- 
viously exhibited  in  order  to  the  full  effect  of  the  reason- 

*  Mill's  discussion  of  Fallacies,  Logic,  Book  V,  contains  much 
that  is  quite  valuable.  He  thinks  that  the  commonest  of  all  fallacies 
IS petitio principii  ("begging  the  question"). 

f  The  larger  topic  of  the  Arrangement  of  a  Sermon  will  be  dis- 
cussed below,  in  Part  II. 


ARGUMENT.  207 

iDg.  Some  proofs  presuppose  others.  Some,  once  more, 
have  great  weight  if  preceded  by  certain  others,  and  are 
of  little  moment  unless  preceded  by  them."  * 

Proofs  which  spring  from  the  very  nature  of  the  pro- 
position should  commonly  come  first,  because  the  exhibition 
of  these  will  involve  a  full  explanation  of  the  proposition, 
and  "after  such  an  explanation  the  relevance  and  force 
of  every  other  proof  will  be  more  clearly  seen."  f 

Arguments  a  priori  generally  precede  others,  as  they 
prepare  the  mind  more  readily  to  receive  the  a  posteriori 
proofs.  Thus  after  presenting  the  a  priori  probability  that 
a  revelation  would  be  given  to  man,  and  further,  that  such 
a  revelation  would  be  accompanied  by  miracles,  we  may 
gain  a  hearing  for  the  testimony  that  miracles  have  been 
wrought,  and  in  connection  with  them  a  revelation  has 
been  given.  Here  the  testimony  falls  in  with  an  ante- 
cedent probability.  But  if  we  first  bring  forward  the 
testimony  that  miracles  have  taken  place,  "as  insulated 
occurrences,  without  any  known  or  conceivable  purpose," 
it  has  to  encounter  a  powerful  antecedent  probability 
against  miracles.  J  There  are  cases,  however,  in  which  it 
is  better  to  present  first  some  more  tangible  and  popular 
proof  of  a  proposition,  as  from  testimony  or  from  example, 
and  then  show  that  this  need  not  surprise  us  when  we  look 
at  certain  a  priori  considerations. 

It  is  usually  best,  where  nothing  forbids,  to  begin  with 
the  weakest  arguments  used  and  end  with  the  strongest, 
thus  forming  a  climax^  the  power  of  which  is  well  under- 
stood. 

But  we  must  sometimes  depart  from  the  order  which 
would  be  fixed  by  the  natural  dependence  of  the  arguments 
upon  each  other,  because  of  the  known  disposition  of  the 
hearers.  If  they  are  unfriendly  to  our  views,  it  is  well  to 
begin  with  one  or  more  strong  arguments,  well  suited  to 

*Day,  p.  153.         f  Day,  p.  154.         X  See  Wliately,  p.  169-70. 


208  ARGUMENT. 

their  minds,  so  as  to  comroand  respect  and  secure  attention. 
We  may  next,  according  to  the  precept  of  the  ancient 
rhetoricians,  throw  in  the  less  important  matter,  and  close 
with  the  strongest  of  all,  for  the  sake  of  the  final  impres- 
sion ;  or,  beginning  with  the  strongest  arguments,  and 
adding  less  important  but  confirmatory  considerations,  we 
may  at  the  close  recapitulate  in  the  reverse  order,  and  thus 
gain  the  effect  of  a  climax.* 

What  position  shall  be  occupied  by  arguments  from 
Scripture,  relatively  to  those  drawn  from  reason,  expe- 
rience, etc.  ?  To  begin,  as  is  not  unfrequently  done,  with 
plain  proofs  from  Scripture,  and  then  add  further  proofs 
from  reason,  history,  common  experience  and  the  like, 
seems  derogatory  to  the  authority  of  God's  Word.  When 
a  thing  has  been  proven  by  that  Word,  then  for  the 
preacher  the  question  is  settled ;  he  cannot  admit,  he  must 
not  seem  to  admit,  that  there  is  any  need  of  further  argu- 
ment. So  far,  then,  it  would  appear  that  Scripture  proofs 
should  regularly  follow  others.  But  there  will  be  cases  in 
which  this  is  awkward ;  and  besides,  to  some  of  the  hearers 
proofs  from  reason  may  be  more  convincing,  or  proofs  from 
experience  more  impressive,  than  the  plainest  declarations 
of  the  Bible.  To  meet  these  conditions  we  may  begin  with 
the  Scripture  teachings,  and  then  observe  that  here,  as  in 
fact  everywhere,  reason  and  experience  are  in  harmony 
with  the  Bible,  and  so  proceed  to  the  arguments  from  those 
sources.  In  this  way  we  conform  to  the  hearer's  mode  of 
thinking  and  feeling,  and  end  with  that  which  will  make 
the  strongest  impression  on  him,  without  abandoning  our 
own  position  as  to  the  supremacy  of  Scripture  —  a  position 
which  even  infidels  will  feel  that  the  preacher  himself  ought 
to  maintain.f  To  hold  firmly  our  own  ground,  and  yet  put 
ourselves  as  far  as  possible  in  sympathy  with  the  persons 

*Comp.  Whately,  p.  201. 

f  Comp.  one  of  the  opening  paragraphs  of  this  chapter. 


ARGUMENT.  209 

we  would  win,  is  a  thing  often  demanded  in  preacliing,  and 
an  achievement  .worthy  of  much  thoughtful  effort. 

In  what  part  of  a  discourse  shall  the  refutation  of 
objections  be  placed  ?  "  When  an  objection  lies  against 
the  view  advanced  in  a  certain  part  of  the  sermon,  it 
should  obviously,  for  the  efficiency  of  that  part,  be  dis- 
posed of,  though  as  briefly  as  possible,  before  passing  to 
another  point."*  If  objections  lie  against  the  general 
sentiment  of  the  sermon,  and  they  can  be  refuted  inde- 
pendently of  the  discussion,  and  briefly,  it  is  advantageous 
to  clear  them  out  of  the  way  before  entering  upon  our  line 
of  argument.  Where  the  refutation  depends  upon  our 
argument,  or  would  occupy  much  time,  it  must  be  post- 
poned to  the  close;  and  in  that  case,  if  some  of  the 
objections  would  be  likely  to  occur  at  once  to  the  hearer's 
mind,  and  interfere,  as  we  proceed,  with  the  effect  of  our 
arguments,  it  is  well  to  intimate  at  the  outset  that  we 
propose,  before  concluding,  to  notice  some  objections. 

"The  hint  may  here  be  of  some  utility,  that  when  a 
controverted  position  is  to  be  defended,  an  advantage  may 
be  gained  by  stating,  previously  to  entering  on  the  proof, 
one  or  two  of  the  most  weighty  objections  against  the 
opposite  views.  Objectors  may  thus  become  sensible  of 
difficulties  which  they  had  not  contemplated,  and  many 
may  be  induced  to  hear  with  greater  candor  arguments  in 
favor  of  the  position  ;  those  who  admit  the  point  under 
discussion  may  receive  additional  confirmation;  and  those 
Avho  are  indifferent  may  be  led  to  regard  the  subject  as 
more  important  than  they  had  supposed."  f 

In  a  formal  public  discussion,  it  is  a  very  common  arti- 
fice for  the  person  who  speaks  first  to  insist  that  his  antag- 
onist shall  follow  the  order  of  topics  which  he  has  laid 
down.  In  the  famous  contest  as  to  the  crown,  ^schines 
attempted  this ;  and  so  important  did  Demosthenes  regard 

*  Ripley,  Sac.  Rhet.  p.  81.  f  Ripley,  p.  82. 

18* 


210  ARGUMENT. 

the  matter,  that  he  begins  his  speech  with  a  solemn  appeal 
to  the  judges  that  they  shall,  as  really  required  by  their 
oath  of  impartiality,  allow  each  of  the  disputants  to  pursue 
the  order  he  may  choose.* 

§  5.      GENERAL    SUGGESTIONS   AS    TO   ARGUMENT. 

In  concluding  the  subject  of  Arguments,  it  is  proper  to 
throw  together  a  few  practical  hints,  though  some  of  them 
are  indirectly  involved  in  statements  heretofore  made.f 

(1.)  Do  not  undertake  to  prove  anything  unless  you  are 
sure  it  is  true,  and  satisfied  that  you  can  prove  it. 

(2.)  Let  your  argument  start  from  something  which  the 
persons  addressed  will  fully  acknowledge.  This  is  obvi- 
ously important,  but  is  often  neglected. 

(3.)  Use  arguments  intelligible  to  your  hearers,  and 
likely  to  make  an  impression  on  their  minds.  This  must 
be  the  rule,  though  individual  hearers  may  have  so  low  a 
grade  of  intelligence  that  we  cannot  uniformly  keep  within 
their  reach,  and  though  particular  arguments  not  intelli- 
gible even  to  the  majority  may  somefimes  be  used,  if  with 
the  few  they  would  be  very  effective,  and  if  they  take  up 
but  little  time.  But  it  is  a  not  uncommon  thing  to  see 
preachers  present  whole  trains  of  abstract  or  otherwise 
unfamiliar  argument,  which  the  great  mass  of  their  hearers 
cannot  at  all  comprehend,  and  but  very  few  can  follow 
throughout.  The  preacher,  of  all  men,  should  study  the 
common  mind,  and  seek  fully  to  understand,  not  only  its 
forms  of  expression,  but,  what  is  still  more  important,  its 
ways  of  thinking.  He  should  strive  to  put  himself  in  the 
position  of  his  hearers,  and  consider  how  this  or  that  argu- 
ment will  appear  from  their  point  of  view.J     "  For  this  is 

*  As  to  the  general  conduct  of  refutation,  see  above,  §  3. 
f  Comp.  particularly  the  introductory  paragraphs  of  this  chapter. 
Jin  these  respects  a  good  deal  may  be  learned  from  the  critical 
observation  of  able  "stump-speakers,"  and  jury-lawyers. 


ARGUMENT.  211 

the  reason  why  uneducated  men  have  more  power  of  persua- 
sion among  the  rabble  than  the  educated  have,  just  as  the 
poets  say  [Euripides  has  such  a  saying]  that  the  unedu- 
cated are  in  the  estimation  of  the  rabble  finer  speakers. 
For  the  one  class  say  what  is  matter  of  common  knowledge 
and  of  a  general  character ;  but  the  others  speak  from 
their  own  knowledge,  and  say  the  things  that  lie  close  to 
their  hearers."  *  How  true  it  is  now  of  many  able  and 
learned  preachers  that  they  can  speak  only  of  generalities, 
belonging  to  the  common  stock  of  human  knowledge,  and 
know  not  how  to  fall  in  with  the  modes  of  thought  which 
are  familiar  and  agreeable  to  the  masses.  That  this  last 
can  be  done  without  the  sacrifice  of  truly  profound  thought 
or  the  violation  of  refined  taste,  has  been  shown  by  some 
ministers  of  every  age  and  country,  and  most  conspicu- 
ously by  that  Great  Teacher  of  whom  it  was  said  —  O 
exalted  eulogium!  —  "the  common  people  heard  him 
gladly." 

(4.)  In  general,  rely  mainly  on  Scripture  arguments, 
and  prefer  those  which  are  plain  and  unquestionable. 
When  we  engage  in  religious  controversy  before  a  popular 
audience,  we  shall  usually  do  well  to  say  but  little  con- 
cerning that  great  mass  of  learned  matter  about  which  the 
people  cannot  personally  judge,  and  rely  mainly  on  com- 
mon-sense views  of  the  plain  teachings  of  Scripture.  But  if 
we  are  superior  to  the  petty  vanity  of  displaying  a  cheap 
erudition,  we  often  find  it  too  hard  to  work  out  a  common- 
sense  view,  and  too  easy  to  appropriate  the  piles  of  material 
which  the  learned  have  left  us.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  but  a 
small  proportion  of  controversial  sermons  are  in  this  respect 
well  suited  to  the  popular  mind.  And  apart  from  contro- 
versy, let  us  use  chiefly  arguments  from  Scripture.  This 
is  common  ground  between  us  and  our  hearers.  In  general, 
no  other  arguments  can  come  so  appropriately  from  us, 

*  Aristotle,  Rhet.  II,  22,  3. 


212  ARGUMENT. 

or  be  so  effective  with  the  people.  And  in  the  general 
principles,  the  many  special  precepts,  and  the  immense 
number  of  examples,  good  and  evil,  to  be  found  in  the 
Bible,  we  have  a  boundless  store  of  material  for  argument.* 

(5.)  Do  not  try  to  say  everything,  but  select  a  suitable 
number  of  the  most  available  arguments.  It  is  true  that 
sometimes  the  judicious  combination  of  many  compara- 
tively slight  arguments  may  have  a  great  effect.  "  Singly 
they  are  light,"  says  Quintilian,  "  but  taken  together  they 
do  hurt,  though  not  as  by  a  thunderbolt,  yet  as  by  hail."  f 
Still,  it  is  a  very  common  fault  to  multiply  arguments  to 
excess.  With  sore  travail  of  the  mind  the  preacher  has 
brought  all  these  into  existence,  and  surveying  them  with 
parental  affection,  he  thinks  each  of  them  too  good  to  be 
abandoned.  But  how  many  thousand  men  was  it  that 
Gideon  dismissed  that  he  might  conquer  with  three  hun- 
dred? Where  there  are  so  many  arguments,  either  the 
discourse  must  be  excessively  long,  or  they  must  be  too 
hurriedly  presented.  "A  plain  hearer,  who  listens  to  a 
rapid  succession  of  various  proofs,  especially  if  they  are 
novel  and  incongruous,  is  much  in  the  condition  of  a 
rustic  stranger,  who  is  hurried  through  the  streets  of  a 
crowded  city,  where  a  thousand  objects  strike  his  eye,  not 
one  of  which  leaves  any  distinct  and  permanent  impression 
on  his  mind."  X  Where  it  is  really  necessary  to  present 
many  arguments,  let  them  be  skilfully  grouped,  and  let  the 
more  obvious  be  briefly  stated,  in  order  to  pause  and  dwell 
upon  those  which  demand  special  attention. 

(6.)  Avoid  formality.  Have  the  reality  of  argument, 
but  as  little  as  possible  of  its  merely  technical  forms  and 
phrases. 

(7.)  As  to  the  style  of  Argument,  the  chief  requisites 
are  of  course  clearness,  precision,  and  force.     But  a  simple 

*  Comp.  Gresley  on  Preaching,  Letter  VIII. 

t  Quint.  V,  12,  5.  J  Porter's  Horn.,  Lect  XIII. 


ILLUSTRATION.  213 

elegance  is  usually  compatible  with  these.  And  where  the 
subject  is  exalted  and  inspiring,  and  the  speaker's  whole 
soul  is  on  fire,  some  great  thunderbolt  of  argument  may 
blaze  with  an  overpowering  splendor.* 


CHAPTER    YIL 

ILLUSTRATION. 


^  1.  Various  Uses  of  Illustration.  ^  2.  Sources  of  Illustra- 
tion, VIZ.  Observation,  Pure  Invention,  Science,  History, 
Literature  and  Art,  Scripture.  §  3.  Cautions  as  to  the 
Employment  of  Illustration. 

§  1.      VARIOUS   USES   OF   ILLUSTRATION. 

TO  illustrate,  according  to  the  etymology,  is  to  throw 
light  (or  lustre)  upon  a  subject;  and  hence  illustra- 
tion would  strictly  include  only  explanation  and  ornament. 
But  that  which  explains  may  also  contain  a  proof  by 
analogy ;  or  that  which  adorns  a  subject  may  at  the  same 
time  connect  with  it  pathetic  associations.  Accordingly, 
what  we  call  illustrations  are  used  to  explain,  to  prove,  to 
adorn,  and  to  render  impressive. 

Strictly  speaking,  one  would  not  call  illustration  a  dis- 
tinct class  of  the  materials  of  discourse.  As  a  means  of 
explaining,  proving,  or  awakening  emotion,  it  would  fall 
under  the  heads  of  Explanation,  Argument,  and  Appli- 
cation ;t  as  a  means  of  adornment,  it  would  belong  to 
Elegance  of  Style.  ;j;     But  as  the  same  illustration  often 

*  Comp.  Quint.  V,  14,  33. 

f  Discussed  in  chapters  5,  6  and  8 ;  comp.  at  the  beginning  of 
chap.  5. 

X  Part  III,  chap.  4. 


214  ILLUSTRATION. 

subserves  different  ends,  and  as  the  proper  handling  of 
illustrations  is  a  matter  of  great  practical  importance,  it 
seems  best  to  give  the  subject  a  separate  discussion. 

(1.)    Perhaps  the  principal   use   of  illustrations   is   to 
explain.    This  they  do  either  by  presenting  an  example  of 
the  matter  in  hand,  a  case  in  point  (Exemplification),* 
or  by  presenting   something   similar  or   analogous  to  it,, 
•which  will  make  the  matter  plain. 

(2.)  But  illustrations  are  also  very  frequently  employed 
to  'prove.  This  is  done  in  some  rare  cases  by  presenting  an 
example  which  warrants  an  Induction ;  f  commonly,  it  is 
an  argument  from  Analogy.  %  In  Romans,  chap.  6  and  7, 
the  apostle  introduces  three  illustrations,  as  showing  the 
absurdity  of  supposing  that  justification  by  faith  will  en- 
courage to  sin:  believers  are  dead  to  sin,  and  risen  to 
another  life ;  they  have  ceased  to  be  the  slaves  of  sin,  and 
become  the  slaves  (so  to  speak)  of  holiness,  of  God  ;  they 
have  ceased  to  be  married  to  the  law,  and  are  married  to 
a  new  husband,  Christ,  to  whom  they  must  now  bear  fruit. 
Each  of  these  is  not  merely  explanatory  of  the  believer's 
position,  but  involves  an  argument  from  analogy.  So  with 
the  olive-tree  in  chap.  11,  We  have  heretofore  seen  that 
arguments  from  analogy  are  most  frequently  and  most 
safely  employed  in  refutation ;  and  that  when  used  to 
establish  positive  truth,  they  demand  very  great  care,  lest 
we  deceive  ourselves  and  others. 

The  fact  that  an  illustration  may  furnish  proof  at  the 
same  time  that  it  serves  for  explanation,  ornament,  etc., 
calls  for  special  attention.  Some  analogy  may  be  so  orna- 
mental, so  amusing,  or  pathetic,  as  to  make  us  overlook 
the  fact  that  it  has  of  right  an  argumentative  force  also ; 
and  some  comparison  may  be  so  beautiful  an  ornament  as 
to  be  allowed  force  in  the  way  of  proof  when  in  reality  it 

♦  Comp.  chap.  5,  §  2.  f  Comp.  chap.  6,  §  2,  C. 

X  Comp.  chap.  6,  g  2,  D. 


ILLUSTRATION.  215 

is  a  mere  simile  founded  on  resemblance,  and  presents  no 
true  analogy,  and  thus  no  argument.*  We  should  look 
closely  at  illustrations  employed  for  other  purposes,  and 
see  whether  they  also  contain  an  argument. 

(3.)  Illustrations  are  valuable  as  an  ornament.  Their 
use  for  this  purpose,  as  to  kind  and  amount,  must  be 
governed  by  the  general  principles  which  pertain  to  Ele- 
gance of  Style.t  Those  who  find  themselves  much  inclined 
to  the  use  of  ornamental  illustration,  should  exercise  a 
rigorous  self-control,  and  so  cultivate  their  taste  that  it 
will  discard  all  but  the  genuinely  beautiful.  Those  whose 
style  is  barren  of  such  ornament  should  seek  after  it, 
not  by  tying  on  worn  and  faded  artificial  flowers,  but 
by  encouraging  the  subject  to  blossom,  if  that  be  at  all  its 
nature. 

(4)  Finally,  they  frequently  serve  to  render  a  subject 
impressive,  by  exciting  some  kindred  or  preparatory 
emotion.  Thus  in  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  the 
natural  pathos  of  the  story  itself  touches  the  heart,  and 
prepares  it  to  be  all  the  mor.e  impressed  by  the  thought  of 
God's  readiness  to  welcome  the  returning  sinner.  Most 
preachers  use  illustrations  very  freely  for  this  purpose. 
The  story  or  description  may  have  some  value  for  explana- 
tion, proof,  or  ornament,  but  their  chief  object  in  employ- 
ing it  is  to  excite  the  feelings.  This  is  lawful  and  useful, 
provided  the  occasion  be  seized  to  plant  in  the  softened 
soil  the  seeds  of  divine  truth.  But  we  sometimes  hear 
stories  told,  and  at  great  length,  which  purport  to  be  illus- 
trations of  sacred  truth,  and  yet  have  no  other  effect,  and 
to  all  appearance  no  other  design,  than  to  excite  a  transient 
and  aimless  emotion.^ 

The  importance  of  illustration  in  preaching  is  beyond 
expression.      In  numerous   cases  it  is  our  best  means  of 

*  Comp.  Whately,  p.  164-6.  f  See  part  III,  chap   4. 

J  Comp.  on  Applioation,  in  the  next  chapter. 


216  ILLUSTRATION. 

explaining  religious  truth,  and  often  to  the  popular  mind 
our  only  means  of  proving  it.  Ornament,  too,  has  its 
legitimate  place  in  preaching,  and  -whatever  will  help  us 
to  move  the  hard  hearts  of  men  is  unspeakably  valuable. 
Besides,  for  whatever  purpose  illustration  may  be  specially 
employed,  it  often  causes  the  truth  to  be  remembered. 
Sometimes,  indeed,  even  where  its  force  as  an  explanation 
or  proof  was  not  at  first  fully  apprehended,  the  illustration, 
particularly  if  it  be  a  narrative,  is  retained  in  the  mind 
until  subsequent  instruction  or  experience  brings  out  the 
meaning.  Such  was  frequently  the  case  with  the  first 
hearers  of  our  Lord's  Parables.  In  preaching  to  children, 
and  to  the  great  mass  of  adults,  illustration  is  simply  in- 
dispensable, if  we  would  either  interest,  instruct  or  impress 
them ;  while  good  illustration  is  always  acceptable  and 
useful  to  hearers  of  the  highest  talent  and  culture.  The 
example  of  our  Lord  decides  the  whole  question ;  and  the 
illustrations  which  so  abound  in  the  records  of  his  preach- 
ing ought  to  be  heedfully  studied  by  every  preacher,  as  to 
their  source,  their  aim,  their  style,  and  their  relation  to 
the  other  elements  of  his  teaching.  Among  the  Christian 
preachers  of  different  ages  who  have  been  most  remark- 
able for  affluence  and  felicity  of  illustration,  there  may  be 
mentioned  Chrysostom,  Jeremy  Taylor,  Christmas  Evans, 
Chalmers,  Spurgeon  and  Beecher.* 

*  Of  works  discussing  the  subject  of  Illustration,  see  Cowling's 
Power  of  Illustration,  New  York,  Sheldon  &  Co.  In  Trumbull's 
Children  in  the  Temple,  1869,  there  are  good  remarks  on  the  sub- 
ject (p.  263-70),  with  the  mention  of  Groser's  Illustrative  Teaching, 
London  S.  S.  Union,  and  Freeman's  Use  of  Illustration  in  S.  S. 
Teaching,  New  York,  Carlton  &  Porter.  Good  thoughts  may  be 
found  in  Papers  on  Preaching,  by  a  Wykehamist,  London,  1861, 
chap.  6  and  7.  Gresley  (Letter  X)  and  Hood  (Lecture  VIII)  pre- 
eent  some  things  that  are  valuable. 


ILLUSTRATION.  217 

§  2.      SOURCES   OF   ILLUSTRATION. 

Illustration  of  religious  truth  may  be  drawu  from  the 
whole  realm  of  existence  and  of  conception.  It  might 
seem  idle  to  make  any  classification  of  the  sources,  but 
there  are  two  reasons  for  doing  so.  The  preacher  may 
thereby  be  stimulated  to  seek  such  materials  in  directions 
which  he  has  comparatively  neglected,  and  the  attempt  at 
classification  will  furnish  the  occasion  for  some  practical 
remarks  in  passing. 

(1.)  Observation.  It  is  pre-eminently  important  that  the 
teacher  of  religion  should  be  a  close  observer ;  partly  that 
he  may  know  how  to  adapt  religious  instruction  to  the  real 
character  of  his  hearers,  and  the  actual  conditions  of  their 
life,  but  also  that  he  may  be  able  to  draw  from  that  inex- 
haustible store  of  illustration  which  lies  everywhere  open 
to  the  man  who  has  eyes  to  see  and  ears  to  hear. 

Nature  teems  with  analogies  to  moral  truth ;  and  we 
should  not  merely  accept  those  which  force  themselves  on 
our  attention,  but  should  be  constantly  searching  for  them. 
Besides  those  analogies  which  are  embodied  in  our  familiar 
metaphors,  and  those  which  belong  to  the  common  stock 
of  illustration,  there  are  others,  almost  without  number, 
which  every  thoughtful  observer  may  perceive  for  himself; 
and  here,  as  elsewhere,  what  is  even  relatively  original 
has  thereby  an  augmented  power.  The  writings  of  John 
Foster  are  particularly  rich  in  such  analogies,  and  his 
Memoir  shows  that  he  habitually  sought  for  them,  and 
systematically  recorded  all  that  he  found.  Several  of  our 
Lord's  most  impressive  illustrations  are  drawn  from  his 
own  close  observation  of  nature ;  as,  for  example,  the  lily, 
the  mustard-seed,  the  birds.  And  notice  that  although 
these  are  all  so  stated  as  to  be  very  beautiful,  he  employs 
them  for  higher  ends,  for  explanation  or  for  argument. 
There  is  here  an  important  lesson,  for  preachers  who  derive 
19 


218  ILLUSTPwATIOX. 

illustration  from  nature  are  too  apt  to  follow  tLe  poets  iu 
making  it  chiefly  ornamental.* 

A  still  richer  field,  if  possible,  is  human  life,  with  all  its 
social  relations  and  varied  callings  and  pursuits,  its  busi- 
ness usages,  mechanical  processes,  etc.,  and  with   all  its 
changing  experiences.     Here  a  man's  personal  experience 
will  blend  with  his  observation  of  others.     And  he  who 
really  and  thoughtfully  observes  life,  spreading  in  its  im- 
mense variety  all  around,  and  embracing,  too,  the  world 
■within  us,  can  surely  never  be  at  a  loss  for  illustration. 
Chrysostom,  though  somewhat  ascetical  in  his  vicAvs,  and 
though  a  diligent  student,  overflows  with  allusions  to  real 
life.-    Beecher,  who  has  lived  for  years  in  the  midst  of  a 
continent  and  a  nation  condensed  within  a  few  square  miles, 
shows  that  he  has  diligently  carried  out  the  lesson  which 
he  declares  himself  to  have  learned  from  Ruskin,  to  "keep 
his  eyes  and  ears  open."     He  has  been  watching  the  ships 
and  the  sailors,  has  acquainted  himself  with  the  customs, 
good  and  bad,  of  commercial  life,  has  curiously  inspected 
a  great  variety  of  mechanical  processes,  has  often  visited 
his  farm  and  closely  observed  agricultural  operations  and 
the  various  phases  of  rural  life,  has  been  constantly  seeing 
and  hearing  what  occurred  in  his  home  and  in  other  homes 
he  visited,  has  supplemented  his  own  observation  by  in- 
quiring of  others  as  to  all  the  manifold  good  and  evil  of 
the  great  world  that  surges  around  him,  and  everywhere 
and  always  has  been  asking  himself,  till  that  has  become 
the  fixed  habit  of  his  mind,  what  is  this  like  ?  what  will 
this  illustrate?     Hence  the   boundless  variety,   and    the 
sparkling  freshness,  of  his   illustrations,  and  these   form 
the  chief  element  of  his  power  as  a  preacher.     Spurgeon, 
though  not  equal  to  Beecher  in  this  respect,  and  though 
accustomed  to  draw  much  from  his  reading,  has  been  a 
close  observer  too,  in  many  and  various,  directions. 

*  Comp.  on  Imagination    Part  III,  chap.  6. 


ILLUSTRATION^  219 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  much  of  the  choicest 
illustration  is  derived  from  the  commonest  pursuits  and 
the  most  familiar  experiences  of  life,  and  a  man  may  excel 
in  this  respect  without  living  in  New  York  or  London. 
The  great  mass  of  our  Lord's  illustrations  are  drawn  from 
ordinary  human  life.  Of  agricultural  operations,  we  find 
reference  to  sowing  wheat  and  various  circumstances  which 
help  or  hinder  its  growth,  to  harvesting,  winnoAving  and 
putting  in  barns,  to  the  management  of  fig-trees  and  vine- 
yards, and  to  bottling  the  wine.  In  domestic  affairs,  he 
speaks  of  building  houses,  various  duties  of  servants  and 
stewards,  leavening  bread,  baking,  and  borrowing  loaves 
late  at  night,  of  dogs  under  the  table,  patching  clothes, 
and  their  exposure  to  moth,  lighting  lamps,  and  sweeping 
the  house.  As  to  trade,  etc.,  he  mentions  the  purchase 
of  costly  pearls,  finding  hid  treasure,  money  intrusted  to 
servants  as  capital,  lending  on  interest,  creditors  and  debt- 
ors, imprisonment  for  debt,  and  tax-gatherers.  Among 
social  relations,  he  tells  of  feasts,  weddings  and  bridal  pro- 
cessions, the  judge  and  the  widow  who  had  been  wronged, 
the  rich  man  and  the  beggar,  the  good  Samaritan.  Of 
political  affairs,  he  alludes  to  kings  going  to  war,  and  the 
parable  of  the  ten  pounds  (Luke  19  :  11  ff.)  corresponds  in 
every  particular  to  the  history  of  Archelaus  in  our  Lord's 
childhood.  The  Prodigal  Son  is  a  series  of  the  most 
beautiful  pictures  of  real  life.  And  who  can  think  with- 
out emotion  of  Jesus  standing  in  some  market-place,  and 
watching  children  at  their  sports,  from  which  he  afterwards 
drew  a  striking  illustration  ?  All  these  form  but  a  part 
of  the  illustrative  material  which,  in  our  brief  records  of 
his  teaching,  we  find  him  deriving  from  the  observation  of 
human  life,  and  in  nearly  every  case  from  matters  familiar 
to  all.  The  lesson  is  obvious,  but  it  should  be  pondered 
long. 

Th6  observation  of  children  is  particularly  profitable  to 


220  ILLUSTRATION. 

a  religious  teacher.  They  reveal  much  of  numan  nature, 
and  their  words  and  ways  are  usually  interesting  to  adults. 
But  let  us  never  repeat  a  child's  striking  sayings  in  its  own 
presence,  nor  in  any  wise  flatter  children  as  preachers  some- 
times do.  The  recollections  of  one's  own  childhood  grow 
increasingly  interesting  as  life  advances ;  but  we  must  be 
careful  not  to  exaggerate  and  glorify  those  recollections  in 
employing  them,  not  to  fall  into  egotism,  nor  to  imagine 
that  these  perhaps  trifling  matters  will  be  sure  to  interest 
others  as  much  as  ourselves. 

Narrations  of  actual  experience  of  the  religious  life, 
whether  our  own  or  that  of  others  known  to  us,  are  apt  to 
be  generally  interesting,  and  will  often,  as  cases  in  point, 
furnish  admirable  illustration.  The  great  revival  preachers 
usually  have  a  multitude  of  such  narratives,  drawn  from 
their  observation  at  other  places,  and  they  often  use  them 
with  great  effect.  This  is  one  secret  of  the  power  possessed 
by  some  comparatively  ignorant  preachers  in  secluded  dis- 
tricts. They  tell  their  own  experience  freely,  and  do  not 
shrink  from  mentioning  persons  even  in  an  adjoining  neigh- 
borhood, whose  case  they  can  make  instructive.  And  in 
general,  from  their  very  ignorance,  they  must  find  all  their 
illustration  in  matters  which  their  hearers  are  well  ac- 
quainted with,  and  can  fully  appreciate.  Spurgeon  is  very 
fond  of  deriving  illustration  from  cases  met  with  in  his 
pastoral  labors.* 

(2.)  Pure  invention.  It  is  perfectly  lawful  to  invent  an 
illustration,  even  in  the  form  of  a  story,  provided  that  it 
possesses  verisimilitude,  and  provided  that  we  either  show 
it  to  be  imaginary,  or  let  nothing  depend  upon  the  idea 
that  it  is  real.  It  seems  almost  certain  that  some  of  our 
Lord's  Parables  are  in  this  sense  fictitious.  It  is  shown, 
in  one  case,  by  the  very  form  of  the  expression,  "The  sower 
went  forth  to  sow."     When  we  use  imagined  illustration 

*Comp.  on  Experimental  Subjects,  chap.  3,  §  4. 


ILLUSTRATIOISr.  221 

as  afftjrdmg  an  argument,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  make 
it  fair.  lUs  very  common  for  controversial  speakers  or 
writers  to  "  suppose  a  case,"  and  suppose  it  of  such  a  kind 
as  just  to  suit  their  purpose,  without  due  regard  to  fairness. 
"  If  lions  were  the  sculptors,  the  lion  would  be  uppermost." 
Imagined  illustrations  for  explanation  or  ornament  are 
frequently  too  formal  or  elaborate.     "  As  when  some  giant 

oak,"  etc.  etc.     "  Suppose  there  were  a  man and 

suppose and  suppose,"  etc.     We   all  know   how 

such  things  are  done. 

(3.)  Science.  Besides  what  is  derived  from  our  own  ob- 
servation of  nature  and  of  human  life,  there  is  an  immense 
fund  of  illustration  in  Science,  which,  collecting  the  results 
of  a  far  wider  observation,  classifies  and  seeks  to  explain 
them.  With  the  vast  growth  of  Physical  Science  in  our 
day,  and  the  extensive  diffusion  of  some  knowledge  of  its 
leading  departments,  it  becomes  increasingly  appropriate 
that  preachers  should  draw  illustration  from  that  source. 
In  this  way,  too,  they  will  most  effectually  counteract  the 
efforts  of  some  infidel  men  of  science,  and  some  unwise 
teachers  of  religion,  to  bring  Christianity  and  Science  into 
an  appearance  of  hostility.  It  is  much  better,  both  for  this 
purpose  and  for  others,  that  a  preacher  should  strive  to  be 
well  acquainted  with  one  or  a  few  departments  of  Physical 
Science,  than  that  he  should  dip  lightly  into  many. 

Two  especial  difficulties  beset  the  use  of  scientific  illus- 
tration. It  has  been  so  common  to  make  Astronomy, 
Geology,  etc.  the  occasion  for  marvellous  flights  of  would-be 
eloquence,  that  many  persons  shrink  from  all  allusion  to 
such  subjects,  as  savoring  of  mere  declamation.  But  one 
highly  objectionable  extreme  should  not  drive  us  to  the 
other.  It  is  surely  possible  to  use  such  illustrations  in  a 
direct  and  quiet  fashion  ;  and  if  now  and  then  they  really 
kindle  the  imagination  and  excite  emotion,  in  such  cases 
it  will  be  natural,  and  the  effect  will  be  good.  But  beware 
19* 


222  ILLUSTRATION. 

of  borrowing  from  Chalmers'  Astronomical  Sermons ;  it  is 
wearing  Saul's  armor.  The  other  difficulty  is,  that  much 
of  the  finest  scientific  illustration  demands  more  knowledge 
of  science  than  the  great  mass  of  hearers  really  possess. 
Now  an  illustration  wdiich  would  be  particularly  acceptable 
and  profitable  to  a  few,  may  sometimes  be  employed,  pro- 
vided we  introduce  it  with  some  quiet  remark,  not  saying 
that  most  persons  are  unacquainted  with  this  subject,  but 
that  such  persons  as  happen  to  have  paid  attention  to  such 
or  such  a  matter  will  remember,  etc.  Then  no  one  will 
complain  of  our  alluding  to  a  topic  of  which  he  is  ignorant. 
Or  it  may  be  proper  to  give  the  information  necessary  in 
order  to  appreciate  the  illustration,  provided  we  can  do  so 
in  few  words,  and  without  anything  that  looks  like  display. 
It  is  certainly  lawful  to  spend  as  much  time  upon  describ- 
ing a  phenomenon  or  explaining  a  principle  of  nature 
which  will  afford  good  illustration,  as  we  should  spend 
upon  telling  an  anecdote  for  the  same  purpose,  if  only  the 
description  or  explanation  be  made  intelligible  and  inter- 
esting to  all.  Some  sermons  are  but  scientific  lectures,  with 
a  religious  application. 

Besides  Astronomy  and  Geology,  Physics  and  Chemistry, 
other  branches  of  science  are  coming  to  be  freely  used. 
Whately  was  very  fond  of  illustrations  from  Zoology,  and 
James  Hamilton  from  Botany.  The  various  departments 
of  Medical  Science  have  always  been  thus  employed. 
There  is  an  obvious  and  always  interesting  analogy  between 
bodily  disease  or  healing  and  that  of  the  soul ;  and  Bacon 
has  noticed  that  the  figurative  language  of  Scripture  is 
drawn  with  especial  frequency  from  Agriculture  and  Medi- 
cine. Psychology,  in  its  several  departments,  is  often 
itself  the  theme  of  pulpit  discussion,*  but  is  also  rich  in 
illustration  of  distinctively  religious  themes.  Social  Science 
will  add  much  to  what  is  furnished  by  our  own  observation 

*  Corap.  chap.  4,  §  1. 


ILLUSTRATION.  223 

of  life ;  and  the  science  of  Law  is  of  great  value,  not  only 
from  its  connection  with  the  revealed  Law,  but  as  illus- 
trating the  doctrines  of  atonement  and  justification. 

(4.)  History.  Preachers  have  always  made  much  use 
of  illustration  from  history.  The  field  is  in  itself  bound- 
less, but  is  in  practice  greatly  limited  by  the  popular  lack 
of  extensive  acquaintance  with  it.  Here,  as  in  the  case 
of  Science,  we  may  sometimes  skilfully  introduce  what  is 
familiar  to  but  a  few,  and  may  often  give,  briefly,  without 
ostentation,  and  in  an  interesting  manner,  the  requisite 
information.  Great  as  is  the  value  for  our  purposes  of 
Science,  and  the  attention  now  bestowed  upon  it,  we  must 
not  forget  that  History,  from  its  narrative  and  descriptive 
character  and  its  human  interest,  has  a  peculiar  and 
almost  unrivalled  charm.  And  in  some  respects  this  is 
especially  true  of  Biography,  both  general  and  religious. 
Here  there  is  the  interest  which  always  attaches  to  a  per- 
son, to  an  individual  human  life.  And  biographical  facts 
can  often  be  more  readily  stated  than  those  of  general 
history.  Early  preachers  drew  nearly  all  their  historical 
and  biographical  illustration  from  ancient  history.  Jeremy 
Taylor,  for  example,  greatly  abounds  with  this.  In  our  day 
more  modern  sources  are  of  course  chiefly  in  request,  and 
ancient  writers  are  now  comparatively  a  fresh  field,  par- 
ticularly if  one  will  take  them  at  first  hand,  and  not 
simply  borrow  from  other  preachers,  or  from  recent  works 
on  ancient  history.  Thus  Herodotus  and  Plutarch,  even 
in  a  translation,  may  be  used  with  great  advantage ;  and 
so  as  to  Josephus,  whose  works  are  now  by  most  preachers 
unwisely  neglected.  Spurgeon  is  very  fond  of  illustrations 
from  the  lives  of  devout  men  ;  and  Richard  Fuller  employs 
all  manner  of  historical  and  biographical  incident,  both 
secular  and  religious,  with  rare  felicity  and  power. 

All  preachers  derive  illustration  from  the  news  of  the  day. 
Some  carry  this  too  far,  warranting  the  reproach  that  they 


224  ILLUSTEATION. 

"  get  the  text  from  the  Bible,  and  the  sermon  from  the 
newspapers."  But  it  is  a  grave  mistake  if  any  are  thereby 
repelled  into  avoiding  a  source  of  illustration  so  fresh  in 
its  interest,  and  so  much  more  generally  familiar  to  the 
audience  than  either  science  or  history.  By  judiciously 
alluding  to  all  suitable  matters  of  recent  occurrence, 
whether  recorded  in  the  newspapers,  or  happening  in  our 
own  community,  we  may  render  the  sermon  more  interest- 
ing, and  may  at  the  same  time  have  opportunity  to  throw 
in  useful  practical  remarks  about  many  questions  of  right 
and  wrong.*  The  danger  is,  that  we  shall  set  the  people's 
minds  agoing  upon  the  matters  which  occupy  them  every 
day,  to  the  neglect  of  our  sacred  theme.  This  may  be 
avoided  if  on  the  one  hand  we  take  care  not  to  intermingle 
an  excessive  amount  of  such  allusion,  and  on  the  other 
hand  to  keep  it  strictly  subordinate,  in  our  own  feelings 
and  in  the  method  of  introduction,  to  the  religious  aim  of 
the  discourse.  If  not  thus  subordinate,  then  the  most 
interesting  allusion  will  be  the  worst  illustration. 

Anecdotes,  literally  things  unpublishecl,  originally  de- 
noted interesting  matters,  chiefly  historical  and  biograph- 
ical incidents,  gathered  from  unpublished  manuscripts  of 
ancient  authors,  and  thrown  into  a  miscellaneous  collection. 
Though  now  more  widely  used,  the  term  is  still  most  pro- 
perly applied  to  stories  of  what  one  has  himself  observed, 
or  has  drawn  from  oral  sources.  Understood,  however,  in 
the  wider  sense,  so  as  to  include  published  narratives  of  de- 
tached incidents,  anecdotes  are  a  valuable  means  of  illus- 
tration, which  some  preachers  employ  excessively  or  in  bad 
taste,  but  which  others  ought  to  employ  much  more  largely 
than  they  do.  He  who  feels  that  his  style  would  be  degraded 
by  introducing  an  anecdote,  may  profitably  inquire  whether 
his  style  be  not  too  stilted,  or  -at  any  rate  too  monotonous 
in  its  sustained  elevation,  for  popular  discourse.    Let  anec- 

*  Comp.  as  to  preaching  on  Politics,  chap.  8,  g  2. 


ILLUSTRATION.  225 

dotes  be  certainly  true,  if  we  present  them  as  true,  and  let 
them  be  told  without  exaggeration  or  "embellishment." 
Let  them  not  be  ludicrous  —  though  a  slight  tinge  of  deli- 
cate humor  is  sometimes  lawful  —  not  trivial,  and  especially 
not  tedious.  And  as  illustration  is  in  general  a  subordinate 
thing  in  preaching,  and  that  which  is  subordinate  should 
rarely  be  allowed  to  become  prominent,  a  preacher  should 
avoid  such  a  multiplication  of  anecdotes  in  the  same  ser- 
mon, or  in  successive  sermons,  as  would  attract  very  spe- 
cial attention.  A  greater  freedom,  both  as  to  amount  and 
kind,  is  admissible  in  platform  -  speaking,  than  in  those 
more  grave  discourses  w^hich  are  usually  called  sermons.* 

(5.)  Literature  and  Art.  Even  when  science  and  his- 
tory have  been  excluded,  literature,  ancient  and  modern 
in  prose  and  in  verse,  covers  an  immense  field,  and  offers  ?. 
vast  store  of  illustrative  material.  Suggestive,  pleasing,  or 
impressive  sentiments,  and  striking  expressions  may  be 
quoted,  and  allusion  made  to  well-known  literary  works  and 
characters,  whenever  it  will  really  help  to  render  the  dis- 
course interesting  and  useful.  Quotations  of  poetry,  though 
made  by  some  men  in  offensive  excess,  are  employed  by 
very  many  with  admirable  effect ;  and  while  a  few  need  to 
check  their  exuberance  in  this  respect,  the  great  mass  of 
ministers  should  stimulate  themselves  to  observe  and  re- 
tain more  largely,  and  to  use  more  freely,  any  appropriate 
poetical  quotations.  No  one  can  have  failed  to  notice  how 
often  quotations  from  hymns,  particularly  when  they  are 
familiar,  add  greatly  to  the  interest  and  impressiveness  of 
a  sermon.  Spurgeon  often  uses  these  very  effectively.  The 
Pilgrim's  Progress,  -with  its  strong  sense  and  homely  sim- 
plicity, its  poetic  charm  and  devotional  sweetness,  is  so 
rich  in  the  choicest  illustration  that  every  preacher  ought 
to  make  himself  thoroughly  familiar  with  it,  and  to  refresh 

*  Arvine's  Cyclopfedia  of  Anecdotes  is  of  but  little  value.     Bible 
illustrations,  New  York,  Sbeldon  &  Co.,  12mo,  is  better. 


226  ILLUSTRATION. 

his  knowledge  again  and  again  through  life.  Fables  are 
so  often  alluded  to  in  common  conversation  that  we  scarcely 
notice  it,  and  the  occasions  are  very  numerous  in  which 
they  might  be  usefully  employed  in  preaching.  An  author 
of  distinction,  and  of  wide  attainments  and  experience  of 
life,  remarked  some  years  ago  that,  in  his  judgment,  next 
to  the  Bible  and  Shakespeare,  the  most  instructive  book  in 
the  world  was  ^sop's  Fables.  Even  nursery  rhymes,  though 
not  often  exactly  appropriate  in  regular  sermons,  have  been 
employed  to  good  purpose  in  speaking  to  children. 

Proverbs  are  a  singularly  valuable  means  of  stating 
truth  forcibly  and  impressively.  True,  they  usually  rep- 
resent an  imperfect  generalization,  and  are  one-sided,  so 
that  almost  any  proverb  can  be  matched  by  an  opposite 
one.  Yet  in  exhibiting  particular  aspects  of  truth,  in 
impressing  particular  points,  they  have  great  power,  espe- 
cially with  the  popular  mind.  "  Any  one  who,  by  after 
investigation,  has  sought  to  discover  how  much  our  rustic 
hearers  carry  away,  even  from  the  sermons  to  which  they 
have  attentively  listened,  will  find  that  it  is  hardly  ever 
the  course  and  tenor  of  the  argument,  supposing  the  dis- 
course to  have  contained  such  ;  but  if  anything  has  been 
uttered,  as  it  used  so  often  to  be  by  the  best  Puritan 
preachers,  tersely,  pointedly,  epigrammatically,  this  will 
have  stayed  by  them,  while  all  the  rest  has  passed  away." 
"  Great  preachers  for  the  people,  such  as  have  found  their 
way  to  the  universal  heart  of  their  fellows,  have  been  ever 
great  employers  of  proverbs."  *  Our  Lord  once  expressly 
employs  a  proverb,  and  repeatedly  uses  expressions  which 
appear  to  have  been  proverbial.  This  was  one  of  the 
various  ways  in  which  he  sought  to  strike  the  common 
mind,  and  impress  the  popular  heart.     The  proverbs  of 

*  Trench  on  the  Lessons  in  Proverbs,  quoted  in  Papers  on  Preach- 
ing, by  a  Wykehamist,  p.  96.  Compare,  in  this  latter  work,  p 
94-106 


ILLUSTRATION.  227 

our  own  country  and  language  have  of  course  peculiar 
force  with  us  ;  but  those  of  other  countries  will  have  fresh- 
ness, and  if  readily  intelligible  as  well  as  striking,  they 
may  be  very  effective.  All  nations  have  numerous  pro- 
verbs ;  and  besides  the  peoples  more  nearly  related  to  our- 
selves, they  especially  abound  among  the  Hindoos,  the 
Chinese,  and  some  African  tribes.  It  would  sometimes  be 
profitable  to  read  slowly  over  lists  of  proverbs,  considering 
what  religious  truth  this  and  this  will  illustrate,  and  col- 
lecting such,  or  making  reference  to  them  on  the  margin, 
and  associating  them  in  our  mind  with  the  particular 
truths  to  which  they  relate.*  Proverbs  are  often  humor- 
ous ;  and  while  the  coarse  or  ridiculous  should  be  avoided, 
we  need  not  be  too  sensitive  in  that  respect.  "  A  thousand 
beauties  are  snatched  from  the  very  verge  of  propriety  — 
while  many  humdrum  commonplace  men  deserve  the 
rebuke  of  Quintilian:  'His  excellence  was  that  he  had  no 
fault,  and  his  fault  that  he  had  no  excellence.'  A  sermon 
had  better  have  too  much  salt  in  it  than  too  little."  f 
Besides  proverbs  proper,  there  are  many  sage  maxims 
which  are  often  repeated  in  conversation,  |  and  many 
striking  sayings  which  may  be  quoted  from  the  Fathers, 
the  Old  English  divines,  etc. 

Illustration  is  also  frequently  drawn  from  works  of  Art, 
especially  from  pictures.  These  are  constantly  used  in 
books  under  the  name  of  "illustrations"  of  the  narrative 
or  treatise,  and  never  fail,  when  good,  to  interest  every 
class  of  readers  ;  and  in  like  manner  the  description  of  pic- 
tures may  be  very  effectively  used  in  a  sermon.  Such  a 
description  should  of  course  be  brief,  and  free  from  any 
appearance  of  display. 

*  Bohn's  "Handbook  of  Proverbs"  and  "Polyglot  of  Foreign 
Proverbs"  are  excellent  collections,  and  not  costly, 
f  Papers  on  Preaching,  p.  99. 
X  Comp.  AristcMe's  Rhet.  II,  21. 


228  ILLUSTRATION. 

(6.)  Scripture.  The  Scriptures  present  materials  (y^ 
illustration  suited  to  every  legitimate  subject  of  preach- 
ing, and  belonging  to  almost  every  one  of  the  above-men- 
tioned classes,  especially  history  and  biography,  poetry  and 
proverbs,  and  all  manner  of  pointed  sayings.  Several 
causes  combine  to  make  this  the  best  of  all  the  sources 
of  illustration.  The  material  is  to  some  extent  familiar 
to  all,  and  thus  the  illustration  will  be  readily  intelligi- 
ble. Again,  this  material  will  be  much  more  impressive 
than  any  other,  because  of  its  sacredness,  and  its  known 
and  felt  relation  to  ourselves.  Besides,  the  frequent  use 
of  Scripture  illustration  serves  to  revive  and  extend  the 
knowledge  of  Scripture  among  the  hearers. 

Every  preacher  should  most  diligently  draw  from  this 
source.  And  to  this  end,  besides  keeping  on  hand  some 
book  or  other  particular  portion  of  the  Bible  for  thorough 
study,  preachers  should  continue  through  life  the  rapid 
but  attentive  reading  of  the  whole  Bible,  that  its  facts  and 
sayings  may  be  kept  fresh  in  their  minds,  and  readily  pre- 
sent themselves  for  use.  Among  the  elements  of  Spur- 
geon's  power  is  his  copious,  and  often  very  felicitous  use 
of  Scripture  illustration. 

§    3.      CAUTIONS    AS   TO   THE    EMPLOYMENT   OF 
ILLUSTRATION. 

(1.)  Do  not  use  every  illustration  that  occurs  to  you, 
nor  seek  after  them  for  their  own  sake.  The  question  is, 
whether  this  or  that  will  really  conduce  to  the  objects  of 
the  discourse,  will  really  explain  or  prove  what  is  under 
discussion,  or  make  it  more  interesting  and  impressive. 
Some  men  get  a  general  notion  that  illustration  is  a  good 
thing,  and  that  it  is  their  duty  to  employ  it,  and  they 
laboriously  bring  forward  so-called  illustrations  which 
really  effect  nothing,  and  are  therefore  but  useless  lumber. 
Others,  who  have  a  fertile  fancy  or  a  well-stocked  memory, 


ILLUSTRATION.  229 

whUe  wanting  in  genuine  culture  and  good  taste,  will  exces- 
b^ivel)^  multiply  or  expand  their  illustrations.  They  forget 
that  command  of  illustration,  like  command  of  words,  in- 
volves not  only  copious  production,  but  judicious  selection 
and  felicitous  adaptation. 

(2.)  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  not  Avell  to  talk  about  illus- 
trating, but  just  to  illustrate.  If  you  can  throw  the  light 
vividly  on  your  subject,  it  will  seldom  be  necessary  to  give 
notice  beforehand  that  you  are  about  to  do  so. 

(3.)  Carefully  avoid  turning  attention  away  from  the 
subject  illustrated  to  the  illustration  itself.  This  is  ob- 
viously a  very  grave  fault,  but  is  often  committed.  Illus- 
trations stated  at  great  length,  with  high-wrought  imagery 
and  polished  phrase,  such  as  Guthrie  frequently  employSj 
will  almost  inevitably  have  this  effect ;  though  sometimes, 
as  in  the  case  of  Chalmers,  they  may  be  so  felicitous,  and 
applied  with  such  passionate  earnestness,  that  we  at  last 
forget  everything  in  the  subject  illustrated.  So  many 
hearers  are  caring  mainly  for  entertainment,  that  it  is  a  sad 
thing  if  we  divert  their  minds  from  some  subject  they 
ought  to  consider  to  the  curious  or  admiring  examination 
of  the  mere  apparatus  by  which  we  throw  light  on  it.* 

From  this  whole  discussion  it  will  be  evident  that  a 
preacher  should  be  constantly  accumulating  the  materials 
of  illustration.  Whether  he  had  better  jot  down  all  that 
occur  to  him,  keep  a  scrap-book,  etc.,  or  rely  mainly  on  his 
memory,  will  depend  on  his  mental  constitution  and  habits  ; 
but  neither  method  should  be  employed  to  the  total  neglect 
of  the  other.f 

^  This  fault  occurs  very  frequently  in  speaking  to  children. 
There  is  a  mere  succession  of  stories  or  pictures,  which  teach 
nothing,  impress  nothing,  and,  save  as  idle  entertainment,  are 
nothing.     Comp.  Children  in  the  Temple,  p.  266-. 7 

f  Comp.  chap.  4,  ^  1. 
20 


230  APPLICATION. 


CHAPTER    yill. 


APPLICATION. 


THE  application  in  a  sermon  is  not  merely  an  append- 
age to  the  discussion,  or  a  subordinate  part  of  it,  but 
is  the  main  thing  to  be  done.  Spurgeon  says,  "  Where  the 
application  begins,  there  the  sermon  begins."  We  are  not 
to  speak  before  the  people,  but  to  them,  and  must  earnestly 
strive  to  make  them  take  what  we  say  to  themselves. 
Daniel  Webster  once  said,  and  repeated  it  with  emphasis, 
"  When  a  man  preaches  to  me,  I  want  him  to  make  it  a 
personal  matter,  a  personal  matter,  a  personal  matter!'* 
And  it  is  our  solemn  duty  thus  to  address  all  men,  whether 
they  wish  it  or  not. 

The  sermons  of  Jonathan  Edwards,  with  all  their  power, 
show  the  evil  of  having  always  a  regular  "  application," 
formally  announced  or  indicated.  Often  a  brief  and  in- 
formal application  is  best.  Often,  too,  it  is  better  not  to 
reserve  the  application  for  the  latter  part  of  the  discourse, 
but  to  apply  each  thought  as  it  is  presented,  provided  they 
all  conspire  towards  a  common  result. 

The  term  application  is  in  general  somewhat  loosely  em- 
ployed in  regard  to  preaching,  for  it  includes  two  or  three 
distinct^things.  Besides  the  application  proper,  in  which 
we  show  the  hearer  how  the  truths  of  the  sermon  apply  to 
him,  and  besides  the  frequent  practical  suggestions  as  to 
the  best  mode  and  means  of  performing  the  duty  urged, 
there  is  also  commonly  included  all  that  we  denote  by  the 
terms  'persuasion'  and  'exhortation.'  But  if  the  ideas 
conveyed  are  kept  distinct,  it  is  probably  better  to  retain 


APPLICATION.  231 

the  term,  with  which  all  preachers  and  hearers  are  so 
familiar. 

The  application  proper  is  often  effected  by  means  of 
"  inferences  '  or  "  remarks."  The  former  must  not  be  the- 
oretical or  general  deductions  from  the  truths  presented, 
but  must  really  give  to  those  truths  a  practical  bearing. 
And  the  remarks  must  not  diverge  in  various  directions, 
and  become  like  the  untwisted  cracker  of  a  whip,  but 
should  have  a  common  aim  and  make  a  combined  impres- 
sion. In  sermons  upon  historical  subjects,  it  is  lawful  to 
bring  out  several  distinct  lessons,  but  these  had  better  be 
pretty  closely  related.*  It  is  obvious  that  while  some 
subjects  may  be  applied  to  the  congregation  as  a  whole, 
others  will  be  applicable  only  to  particular  classes,  or  will 
have  to  be  applied  to  distinct  classes  separately,  as  con- 
verted and  unconverted,  old  and  young,  etc.  But  it  is 
not  necessary,  as  some  preachers  seem  to  imagine,  always 
to  make  some  kind  of  application  to  the  unconverted,  or 
some  remark  to  them  in  conclusion.  A  sermon  addressed 
throughout  to  pious  people  will  often  specially  instruct 
and  impress  the  unconverted.  What  men  apply  to  them- 
selves, without  feeling  that  it  was  aimed  at  them,  is  apt  to 
produce  the  greatest  effect.  It  is  never  judicious  to  make 
an  application  to  any  particular  individual,  and  very  rarely 
to  a  small  and  well-defined  class.  What  is  popularly  called 
"  hitting  at "  some  person  or  some  few  persons  will  almost 
always  do  more  harm  than  good. 

To  give  good  practical  suggestions  is' a  task  often  calling 
for  experience  and  the  fruits  of  thoughtful  observation, 
and  sometimes  demanding  delicate  tact,  but  is  certainly, 
when  well  managed,  a  most  important  part  of  the  preach- 
er's work.  When  one  has  argued  some  general  duty,  as 
that  of  family  or  private  prayer,  of  reading  the  Bible,  or 
of  relieving   the   needy  and   distressed,  it  is  exceedingly 

*  Comp.  Hoppiu'b  Chr.  Min.  p.  181-5. 


232  APPLICATION. 

useful  to  add  hints  as  to  the  actual  doing  of  the  particular 
duty,  so  as  to  make  it  seem  a  practical  and  a  practicable 
thing,  so  as  to  awaken  hope  of  doing  better,  and  thus  stim- 
ulate effort. 

But  the  chief  part  of  what  we  commonly  call  applica- 
tion is  per.'^iiufiio)!.  It  is  not  enough  to  convince  men  of 
truth,  nor  enough  to  make  them  see  how  it  applies  to  them- 
selves, and  how  it  might  be  practicable  for  them  to  act 
it  out  — but  we  must  "  persuade  men."  A  distinguished 
minister  once  said  that  he  could  never  exhort ;  he  could 
explain  and  prove  what  was  truth  and  duty,  but  then  he 
must  leave  people  to  themselves.  The  apostle  Paul,  how- 
ever, could  not  only  argue,  but  could  say,  "  We  pray  you, 
in  Christ's  stead,  be  ye  reconciled  to  God."  Do  we  not 
well  know,  from  observation  and  from  experience,  that  a 
man  may  see  his  duty  and  still  neglect  it  ?  Have  we  not 
often  been  led  by  persuasion  to  do  something,  good  or  bad, 
from  which  we  were  shrinking  ?  It  is  proper,  then,  to  per- 
suade, to  exhort,  even  to  entreat. 

Persuasion  is  not  generally  best  accomplished  by  a  mere 
appeal  to  the  feelings,  but  by  urging,  in  the  first  place, 
some  motive  or  motives  for  acting,  or  determining  to  act, 
as  we  propose.  This  is  not  properly  called  a  process  of 
argument.  The  motive  presented  may  require  previous 
proof  that  it  is  something  true,  or  right,  or  good,  but  this 
proving  is  distinct  from  the  act  of  presenting  it  as  a 
motive ;  and  if  when  bringing  a  motive  to  bear  w^e  have 
to  prove  anything  concerning  it,  the  proof  ought  to  have 
great  brevity  and  directness,  or  it  will  delay  and  hinder 
the  designed  effect. 

A  preacher  must  of  course  appeal  to  none  but  worthy 
motives.  The  principal  motives  he  is  at  liberty  to  use 
may  be  classed  under  three  heads,  viz.,  happiness,  holiness, 
love. 

We  may  lawfully  appeal  to  the  desire  for  happiness. 


APPLICATION.  233 

Those  philosophers  who  insist  that  man  ought  always  to 
do  right  simply  and  alone  because  it  is  right,  are  no  phi- 
losophers at  all,  for  they  are  either  grossly  ignorant  of 
human  nature,  or  else  are  indulging  in  mere  fanciful  spec- 
ulation. No  doubt  some  preachers  err  in  that  they  treat 
happiness  as  the  almost  exclusive,  at  any  rate  as  the  chief 
motive.  Certainly  this  should  always  be  subordinated  to 
duty  and  affection ;  but  when  thus  subordinated,  it  is  a 
legitimate  and  a  powerful  motive.  The  Scriptures  appeal 
not  only  to  our  feelings  of  moral  obligation,  but  to  our 
hopes  and  fears,  for  time  and  for  eternity.  "  It  is  profit- 
able for  thee,"  is  a  consideration  which  the  Great  Teacher 
repeatedly  employs  in  encouraging  to  self-denial.  A  desire 
for  the  pleasures  of  piety  in  this  life,  or  even  for  the  happi- 
ness of  heaven,  would  never,  of  itself  alone,  lead  men  to 
become  Christians,  or  strengthen  them  to  live  as  such ;  but 
combined  with  other  motives,  it  does  a  great  and  useful 
work.  And  there  is  here  included  not  only  the  pleasure 
to  be  derived  from  gratification  of  appetite  and  passion, 
but  of  taste,  and  of  ambition. 

All  men  desire  holiness,  at  least  in  one  sense  of  the  term, 
though  they  often  wish  it  united  with  sinful  gratifications. 
The  most  abandoned  man  sometimes  wishes  to  be  good, 
nay,  persuades  himself  that  in  certain  respects  he  is  good; 
and  the  great  mass  of  mankind  fully  intend,  after  indulg- 
ing a  little  longer  in  sinful  pleasure,  to  become  thor- 
oughly good  before  they  die.  Here  then  is  a  great  motive 
to  which  the  preacher  may  appeal.  The  thorough  deprav- 
ity of  human  nature  should  not  make  us  forget  that  good- 
ness can  always  touch  at  least  a  faintly  responsive  chord  in 
the  human  breast.  We  ought  to  hold  up  before  men  the 
beauty  of  holiness,  to  educate  the  regenerate  into  doing 
right  for  its  own  sake,  and  not  merely  for  the  sake  of  its 
rewards.  We  ought  to  stimulate,  and  at  the  same  time 
control,  that  hatred  of  evil,  which  is  the  natural  and 
20* 


234  APPLICATION. 

necessary  counterpart  to  the  love  of  holiness.  And  as 
regards  the  future  life,  we  should  habitually  point  men, 
not  only  to  its  happiness,  but  still  more  earnestly  to  its 
purity,  and  strive  by  God's  blessing  to  make  them  long 
after  its  freedom  from  all  sin  and  from  all  fear  of  sinning. 
Such  noble  and  ennobling  aspirations  it  is  the  preacher's 
high  duty  and  privilege  to  cherish  in  his  hearers,  by  the 
very  fact  of  appealing  to  them. 

And  the  mightiest  of  all  motives  is  love.  In  the  rela- 
tions of  the  present  life,  love  is  the  great  antagonist 
of  selfishness.  They  who  "  have  none  to  love,"  by  any 
natural  ties,  must  always  interest  their  hearts  in  the  needy 
and  the  afflicted,  or  they  will  grow  more  and  more  narrow 
and  selfish.  Accordingly,  we  may  constantly  appeal  to 
men's  love  of  their  fellow-men,  as  a  motive  for  doing  right. 
Parents  may  be  urged  to  seek  personal  piety,  and  higher 
degrees  of  it,  for  the  sake  of  their  growing  children ;  and 
so  with  the  husband  or  wife,  the  brother  or  sister  or  friend. 
Now  to  this  motive  the  gospel  appeals  in  a  very  peculiar 
manner.  We  ought  to  love  God  supremely,  and  such 
supreme  love  would  be  our  chief  motive  to  do  right  and  to 
do  good.  But  sin  has  alienated  us  from  God,  so  that  we 
do  not  love  him.  And  Christ  presents  himself,  the  God- 
man,  the  Redeemer,  to  win  our  love  to  him  and  thus  to 
God.  "Whosoever  shall  lose  his  life  for  my  sake,'*  are 
words  which  reveal  the  new  and  mighty  gospel  motive, 
love  to  Christ.  To  this,  above  all  other  motives,  the 
preacher  should  appeal.  Far  from  excluding  others,  it  in- 
tensifies while  it  subordinates  them.* 

But  our  task  is  not  merely  the  calm  exhibition  of  mo-, 
tives,  that  men  may  coolly  act  according  to  them.  Many 
truths  of  religion  are  eminently  adapted  to  stir  the  feelings, 
and  to  speak  of  such  truths  without  feeling  and  awakening 

*  On  the  subject  of  Motives,  see  much  profound  and  suggestive 
remark  in  Vinet,  page  2(}r!-22.     Comp.  Arist.  Rhet.  I,  10,  7  flf. 


APPLICATION.  235 

emotion,  is  unnaturvil  and  wrong.  And  so  mighty  is  the 
opposition  which  the  gospel  encounters  in  human  nature, 
so  averse  is  the  natural  heart  to  the  obedience  of  faith,  so 
powerful  are  the  temptations  of  life,  that  we  must  arouse 
men  to  intense  earnestness  and  often  to  impassioned  emo- 
tion, if  we  would  bring  them  to  surmount  all  obstacles,  and 
to  conquer  the  world,  the  flesh,  and  the  devil.  Who  expects 
to  make  soldiers  charge  a  battery  or  storm  a  fortress  with- 
out excitement?  Many  persons  shrink  from  the  idea  of 
exciting  the  feelings.  "  It  seems  to  be  commonly  taken  for 
granted,  that  whenever  the  feelings  are  excited,  they  are 
over-excited."  *  But  while  ignorant  people  often  value  too 
highly,  or  rather  too  exclusively,  the  appeal  to  their  feel- 
ings, cultivated  people  are  apt  to  shrink  from  such  appeals 
quite  too  much.  Our  feelings  as  to  religion  are  habitually 
too  cold — who  can  deny  it  ?  And  any  genuine  excitement 
is  greatly  to  be  desired.  Inspired  teachers  have  evidently 
acted  on  this  principle.  The  prophets  made  the  most  im- 
passioned appeals.  Our  Lord  and  the  apostles  manifestly 
strove  not  merely  to  convince  their  hearers,  but  to  incite 
them  to  earnest  corresponding  action,  and  their  language 
is  often  surcharged  with  emotion. 

Yet  we  should  never  wish  to  excite  feeling  for  its  own 
sake,  but  as  a  means  of  persuasion  to  the  corresponding 
course  of  action.  In  this  respect  many  preachers  err; 
some  from  not  clearly  perceiving  that  emotion  is  little  worth 
unless  it  excites  to  action,  and  others,  it  is  to  be  feared, 
from  an  excessive  desire  for  popular  applause.  These  last 
give  their  hearers  the  luxury  of  idle  emotion,  as  a  pathetic 
novel  or  a  tragedy  might  do,  and  hearers  and  preacher 
go  away  well  pleased  with  themselves  and  each  other.f 

*  Whately,  p.  215. 

f  The  remarks  of  Day  on  excitation  (Art  of  Disc.  p.  171).  insist- 
ing that  it  is  distinct  from  persuasion,  and  that  "a  considerable  part 
of  pulpit  oratory"  aims  at  excitation  alone,  are  to  be  regretted,  as 
tending  to  encourage  a  common  error. 


236  APPLICATION. 

Bishop  Butler,  in  a  celebrated  passage,  has  pointed  out 
"  that  practical  habits  are  formed  and  strengthened  by  re- 
peated acts,  and  that  passive  impressions  grow  weaker  by 

being  repeated  upon  us Passive  impressions  made 

upon  our  minds  by  admonition,  experience,  example,  though 
they  may  have  a  remote  efficacy,  and  a  very  great  one, 
towards  forming  active  habits,  yet  can  have  this  efficacy 
no  otherwise  than  by  inducing  us  to  such  a  course  of  ac- 
tion ;  and  it  is  not  being  affected  so  and  so,  but  acting, 
which  forms  those  habits ;  only  it  must  be  always  remem- 
bered, that  real  endeavors  to  enforce  good  impressions  upon 
ourselves  are  a  species  of  virtuous  action."  *  No  wonder 
some  preachers  find  that  their  pathetic  descriptions  and 
passionate  appeals  now  make  but  little  impression  upon 
persons  who  were  once  powerfully  affected  by  them.  The 
emotion  was  treated  as  an  end,  not  as  a  means,  and  was 
habitually  allowed  to  subside  without  any  effect  upon  the 
hearer's  active  habits ;  and  a  steady  diminution  of  the  emo- 
tion itself  was  the  inevitable  result.  Surely  that  is  7iot 
good  preaching, — whatever  the  unthinking  may  suppose, — 
which  excites  a  mere  transient  and  unproductive  emotion. 
It  is  matter  of  universal  observation  that  a  speaker  who 
would  excite  deep  feeling  must  feel  deeply  himself.  De- 
mosthenes sometimes  spoke  with  such  passionate  earnestness 
that  his  enemies  said  he  was  deranged.  Cicero  says  that  it 
is  only  passion  that  makes  the  orator  a  king ;  that,  though 
he  himself  had  tried  every  means  of  moving  men,  yet  his 
successes  were  due,  not  to  talent  or  skill,  but  to  a  mighty 
fire  in  his  soul  so  that  he  could  not  contain  himself;  and 
that  the  hearer  would  never  be  kindled,  unless  the  speech 
came  to  him  burning.f  It  is  said  of  Ignatius  Loyola,  the 
founder  of  the  Jesuits,  that  he  preached  "with  such  an 
unction  and  emotion,  that  even  those  amongst  his  audience 

*  Butler's  Analogy,  Part  I,  chap.  5,  II. 
t  Cic.  Orator,  §  128-132. 


APPLICATION'.  237 

who  did  not  understand  the  language  in  which  he  spoke, 
were,  nevertheless,  moved  to  tears  by  the  very  tones  of  his 
voice — the  earnestness  and  burning  zeal  which  appeared 
in  his  every  gesture  and  look."  * 

Alas !  it  is  often  our  chief  difficulty  in  preaching  to  feel 
oiu'selves  as  we  ought  to  feel.  And  a  genuine  fervor  can- 
not be  produced  to  order  by  an  effort  of  will.  We  must 
cultivate  our  religious  sensibilities,  must  keep  our  souls 
habitually  in  contact  with  gospel  truth,  and  maintain,  by 
the  union  of  abundant  prayer  and  self-denying  activity, 
that  ardent  love  to  God  and  that  tender  love  to  man  which 
will  give  us,  without  an  effort,  true  pathos  and  passion. 
The  famous  John  Henry  Newman,  in  his  "University 
Preaching,"  speaks  as  follows:  "Talent,  logic,  learning, 
words,  manner,  voice,  action,  all  are  required  for  the  per- 
fection of  a  preacher;  but  'one  thing  is  necessary,' — an 
intense  perception  and  appreciation  of  the  end  for  which 
he  preaches,  and  that  is,  to  be  the  minister  of  some  definite 

spiritual  good  to  those  who  hear  him I  do  not  mean 

that  a  preacher  must  aim  at  earnestness,  but  that  he  must 
aim  at  his  object,  which  is  to  do  some  spiritual  good  to  his 
hearers,  and  which  will  at  once  make  him  earnest."  f 

When  the  preacher  does  feel  very  deeply,  his  mere  ex- 
hortation will  have  some  power  to  move,  especially  where 
he  has  personal  influence  as  a  devout  man,  or  for  any 
reason  has  the  sympathies  of  his  audience.  There  is  then 
the  inexplicable  contagion  of  sympathy.  But  he  must 
avoid  getting  clear  away  from  the  hearers  in  his  pas- 
sionate feeling,  for  then  sympathy  will  give  place  to  its 
opposite. 

Apart  from  sympathy  with  our  own  emotion,  we  can 
excite  emotion  in  others  only  by  indirect  means,  not  by 
urging  them  to  feel,  though  we  should  urge  with  the 
greatest  vehemence.     We  mus    hold  up  before  the  mind 

*  Potter,  Sac.  El.  p.  211.  f  Quoted  by  Potter,  p.  213. 


238  APPLICATION. 

considerations  calculated  to  awaken  emotion,  and  let  them 
do  their  work.*  For  this  purpose  the  preacher  may  of 
course  learn  from  the  contemplation  of  the  leading  human 
passions,  as  to  their  nature,  and  the  best  means  of  exciting 
them.f  And  we  need  not  only  to  know  human  nature  in 
general,  but  in  most  cases  also  need  to  understand  the 
peculiar  circumstances,  prejudices,  tastes,  etc.  of  those  whom 
we  address.  This  is  plainly  demanded  in  the  case  of  a 
missionary  to  the  heathen,  but  is  hardly  less  necessary  at 
home.  One  reason  why  unlearned  preachers  often  have 
such  power  with  the  masses  is,  that  they  understand,  and 
fully  sympathize  Avith,  the  persons  whom  they  address, 
while  learned  men  sometimes  do  not. 

In  order  to  excite  any  of  the  passions  by  speech,  we  have 
to  operate  chiefly  through  the  imagmation.  "A  passion  is 
most  strongly  excited  by  sensation.  The  sight  of  danger, 
immediate  or  near,  instantly  rouseth  fear ;  the  feeling  of 
an  injury,  and  the  presence  of  the  injurer,  in  a  moment 
kindle  anger.  Next  to  the  influence  of  sense  is  that  of 
memory,  the  effect  of  which  upon  passion,  if  the  fact  be 
recent,  and  remembered  distinctly  and  circumstantially,  is 
almost  equal.  Next  to  the  influence  of  memory  is  that  of 
imagination."  J  In  proportion  as  the  hearer's  imagination 
is  kindled,  he  seems  to  see  that  which  we  present,  and  the 
effect  upon  his  feelings  approximates  to  the  effect  of  sight. § 

In  presenting  an  object  so  that  it  may  awaken  imagina- 
tion and  impress  the  feelings,  we  usually  need  to  give  well- 
chosen  details.  Without  this,  as  we  have  before  seen,  it  is 
impossible  to  make  a  narration  or  description  impressive. || 

*  Comp.  Whately,  p.  216-19. 

f  Aristotle's  discussion  of  certain  passions  (Rhet.  II,  chap.  1-17) 
is  not  exactly  what  we  might  hope  to  find,  but  contains  much  that 
is  curious  and  suggestive. 

X  Campbell,  Phil,  of  Rhet.  p.  103. 

§  See  below  on  Imagination,  Paft  III,  chap.  5. 

II  See  above,  chap.  5,  ^  1. 


APPLICATION.  239 

^ni  preachers  sometimes  so  multiply  details  as  to  weary 
the  hearer,  offend  his  taste,  or  betray  a  lack  of  right  feel- 
ing on  their  own  part.  It  may  be  gravely  doubted  whether 
a  man  can  carry  through  a  minute  description  of  the  cru- 
cifixion, who  is  at  the  time  cherishing  an  intense  faith  and 
love  towards  Christ.  A  few  vivid  details,  presented  very 
briefly,  and  with  genuine  emotion,  will  usually  make  a  far 
deeper  impression.  And  so  with  elaborate  descriptions  of 
the  day  of  judgment,  and  the  agonies  of  perdition.  One 
who  truly  realized  the  scene,  and  tenderly  loved  his  fellow- 
men,  could  hardly  endure  to  dwell  so  long  on  the  most 
harrowing  details,  and  the  preacher  who  does  this  is  apt  to 
be  for  the  time  (though  unconscious  of  it)  mainly  alive  to 
the  artistic  interest  in  his  picture. 

Comparison  is  often  very  effective  in  awakening  emo- 
tion. Thus  we  make  men  feel  more  deeply  how  shameful 
is  ingratitude  to  God,  by  first  presenting  some  affecting 
case  of  ingratitude  to  a  human  benefactor.  The  emotion 
excited  by  something  as  regards  which  men  feel  readily 
and  deeply,  is  transferred  to  the  object  compared.  E.  g. 
"  Like  as  a  father  pitieth  his  children,  so  the  Lord  pitieth 
them  that  fear  him."  The  effect  of  climax,  gradually  work- 
ing the  feelings  up  to  the  highest  pitch,  may  also  be  very 
great,  as  every  one  has  observed. 

We  must  not  try  to  be  highly  impassioned  on  all  sub- 
jects, on  all  occasions,  or  in  all  parts  of  a  discourse.  Ap- 
peals to  the  feelings  will  usually  be  made  only  at  the 
conclusion ;  sometimes,  after  the  discussion  of  each  suc- 
cessive topic,  but  then  we  must  be  sure  that  the  interest 
first  excited  can  be  renewed,  and  gradually  increased.  It 
is  a  common  fault  with  inexperienced  preachers  to  make 
vehement  appeals  in  the  early  part,  even  in  the  very 
beginning,  of  a  sermon ;  in  such  cases  there  will  almost 
inevitably  be  a  reaction,  and  a  decay  of  interest  before  the 
close.    If  several  impassioned  passages  are  to  occur,  those 


240  APPLICATION. 

which  come  first  should  be  comparatively  brief,  and  fol- 
lowed by  something  calm  or  familiar.  It  is  also  important 
to  avoid  exhausting  our  physical  force,  before  reaching 
that  portion  of  the  sermon  which  calls  for  the  most  pas- 
sionate earnestness.  He  who  is  exhausted  not  only  cannot 
speak  forcibly,  but  cannot  feel  deeply.  And  a  concluding 
exhortation  should  never  be  prolonged  beyond  the  point 
at  which  the  preacher  is  still  in  full  vigor,  and  the  hear- 
ers feel  a  sustained  interest. 


Pakt  II. 

ARRANGEMENT   OF   A   SERMON. 


CHAPTER  I. 

IMPORTANCE   OF   ARRANGEMENT. 

THE  effective  arrangement  of  the  materials  in  a  dis- 
course is  scarcely  less  important  than  their  intrinsic 
interest  and  force.  This  is  a  distinct  part  of  the  speaker's 
work,  and  should  be  contemplated  and  handled  as  some- 
thing apart  from  invention  on  the  one  hand  and  from  style 
on  the  other,  albeit  closely  connected  with  both.  In  fact, 
the  task  calls  for  a  specific  talent.  Some  men  exhibit  from 
the  very  outset  a  power  of  constructing  discourses  which 
is  quite  out  of  proportion  to  their  general  abilities ;  and 
other  men  find  nothing  so  difficult  to  acquire  or  exercise  as 
skill  in  arrangement.  And  here,  as  in  everything  else 
that  demands  specific  talent,  there  is  need  of  special  train- 
ing and  practice. 

In  this  respect  the  speaker  is  an  architect.  Out  of  gath- 
ered materials  he  is  to  build  a  structure,  and  a  structure 
suited  to  its  specific  design.  The  same,  or  nearly  the  same 
materials  may  be  made  into  a  dwelling,  a  jail,  a  factory,  a 
church.  But  how  different  the  plan  of  the  building  according 
to  its  design,  and  how  important  that  it  be  built  with  special 
reference  to  the  design.  In  like  manner,  substantially  the 
21  241 


242         IMPORTANCE    OF    ARRANGEMENT. 

same  materials  may  be  wrought  into  a  story,  a  dialogue, 
an  essay,  or  a  speech  ;  and  several  speeches  on  the  same 
subject,  and  embvodying  much  the  same  thoughts,  may 
make  a  very  different  impression  according  to  the  plan. 

Or  the  speaker's  task  may  be  compared  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  an  army,  and  then  the  concentration  of  its  several 
divisions  upon  one  objective  point. 

"  We  know  not  how  to  name  a  composition  without 
order.  It  is  disposition,  it  is  order  which  constitutes  dis- 
course. The  difference  between  a  common  orator  and  an 
eloquent  man  is  often  nothing  but  a  difference  in  respect  to 
disposition.  Disposition  may  be  eloquent  in  itself,  and  on 
close  examination  we  shall  often  see,  that  invention  taken 
by  itself,  and  viewed  as  far  as  it  can  be  apart  from  disposi- 
tion, is  a  comparatively  feeble  intellectual  force.  '  Good 
thoughts,'  says  Pascal,  *  are  abundant.'  The  art  of  organ- 
izing them  is  not  so  common I  will  not  go  so  far 

as  to  say  that  a  discourse  without  order  can  produce  no 
effect,  for  I  cannot  say  that  an  undisciplined  force  is  an 
absolute  nullity.  We  have  known  discourses  very  defec- 
tive in  this  respect,  to  produce  very  great  effects.  But  we 
may  affirm  in  general,  that  other  things  being  equal,  the 
power  of  discourse  is  proportional  to  the  order  which 
reigns  in  it,  and  that  a  discourse  without  order  (order,  be 
it  remembered,  is  of  more  than  one  kind)  is  comparatively 
feeble.  A  discourse  has  all  the  power  of  which  it  is  sus- 
ceptible, only  when  the  parts  proceeding  from  the  same 
design  are  intimately  united,  exactly  adjusted,  when  they 
mutually  aid  and  sustain  one  another  like  the  stones  of  an 

arch This  is  so  true,  so  felt,  that  complete  disorder 

is  almost  impossible,  even  to  the  most  negligent  mind.  In 
proportion  to  the  importance  of  the  object  we  wish  to  at- 
tain, or  the  difficulty  of  attaining  it,  is  our  sense  of  the 
necessity  of  order.''  * 

*  Vinot,  p.  264-5. 


IMPORTANCE    OF    ARRANGEMENT.         243 

(1.)  Arrangement  is  of  great  importance  to  the  speaker 
himself.  It  reacts  upon  invention.  One  has  not  really 
studied  a  subject  when  he  has  simply  thought  it  over  in 
a  desultory  fashion,  however  long-continued  and  vigorous 
the  thinking  may  have  been.  The  attempt  to  arrange  his 
thoughts  upon  it  suggests  other  thoughts,  and  can  alone 
give  him  just  views  of  the  subject  as  a  whole.  Good  ar- 
rangement assists  in  working  out  the  details,  whether  this 
be  done  mentally  or  in  writing.  Each  particular  thought, 
when  looked  at  in  its  proper  place,  develops  according  to 
the  situation,  grows  to  its  surroundings.  If  one  speaks 
without  manuscript,  an  orderly  arrangement  of  the  dis- 
course greatly  helps  him  in  remembering  it.  One  reason 
why  some  preachers  find  extemporaneous  speaking  so  difla- 
cult  is,  that  they  do  not  arrange  their  sermons  well.  And 
not  only  to  invention  and  memory,  but  to  emotion  also,  is 
arrangement  important.  Whether  in  preparation  or  in 
delivery,  a  man's  feelings  will  flow  naturally  and  freely, 
only  when  he  has  the  stimulus,  support  and  satisfaction 
which  comes  from  conscious  order. 

The  speaker  who  neglects  arrangement  will  rapidly  lose, 
instead  of  improving,  his  power  of  constructing,  organiz- 
ing, a  discourse;  *  and  he  will  have  to  rely,  for  the  eflfect 
of  his  sermons,  entirely  on  the  impression  made  by  striking 
particular  thoughts,  or  on  the  possibility  that  high  emo- 
tional excitement  may  produce  something  of  order.  For 
passion  does  sometimes  strike  out  an  order  of  its  own.  "  I 
know  that  nothing  is  as  logical,  after  its  own  manner,  as 
passion ;  and  that  we  may  depend  upon  it  for  the  direction 
of  a  discourse  of  which  it  is  the  principal  inspiration. 
The  beginning  we  may  be  sure  will  be  good,  and  the  begin- 
ning will  produce  all  the  rest.  It  will  be  repetitious,  it  will 
retrace  its  steps,  it  will  digress,  but  it  will  do  everything 
with  the  grace  and  felicity  which  always  accimpanyit; 

*  "omp.  Shedd,  p.  214. 


244         IMPORTANCE    OF    ARRANGEMENT. 

and  ii  would  be  less  true  and  consequently  less  eloque  at  if 
it  were  more  logical  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word.  It 
naturally  finds  the  order  which  suits  it,  and  it  finds  this 
precisely  because  it  does  not  seek  after  it.  The  rapid 
propagation  of  ideas,  their  concatenation  by  means  of 
thoroughly  vital  transitions,  which  themselves  constitute 
the  movement  of  the  discourse,  suffice  for  the  eloquence 
of  passion."*  This  sort  of  thing  is  not  unfrequently 
observed  in  the  best  efforts  of  some  uncultivated  but  gifted 
men,  and  many  a  pastor  has  had  occasional  experience  of 
it  when  forced  to  preach  with  inadequate  preparation,  and 
unusually  helped  by  passionate  emotion.  It  is  very  proper 
that  a  preacher  should  sometimes  give  himself  up,  for  a 
small  portion  of  a  discourse,  to  the  suggestions  of  passion, 
should  throw  himself  upon  the  current  of  feeling ;  and  in 
social  meetings  he  may  sometimes  speak  without  any 
immediate  preparation,  and  yet  if  he  becomes  deeply 
stirred,  and  gains  the  sympathies  of  his  audience,  may 
speak  with  spontaneous  order,  and  with  powerful  effect. 
But  to  rely  on  this  habitually  is  surpassingly  unwise. 

(2.)  Still  more  important  is  good  arrangement  as  regards 
the  effect  upo7i  the  audience.  It  is  necessary,  first,  in  order 
to  make  the  discourse  intelligible.  "Hearers  generally, 
when  the  preacher  has  a  poor  plan,  feel  the  difficulty, 
though  they  may  not  be  able  to  trace  it  to  its  real  source  ; 
and  one  of  the  reasons  why  a  man  of  truly  philosoph- 
ical mind  is  able  '  to  make  things  plain '  even  to  illiterate 
hearers,  is,  that  he  presents  clear  thoughts  in  a  proper 
order."  f  Many  persons  appear  to. think  that  intelligibility 
is  altogether  an  affair  of  style ;  when  in  fact  it  depends 
quite  as  much  on  clear  thinking  and  on  good  arrangement 
as  on  perspicuous  expression.  It  is  melancholy  to  think 
how  large  a  portion  of  the  people,  even  in  favored  commu- 
nities, really  do  not  u  iderstand  most  of  the  preaching  they 

*Vinet,  p.  271.  f  Ripley,  Sac.  Rbet.  p.  85. 


IMPORTANCE    OF    ARE  ANviEMENT.         245 

hear.  Not  a  few  would  say,  like  Tennyson's  "  Northern 
Farmer,"  if  they  spoke  with  equal  frankness,  that  they 
had  often  heard  "  parson  a  bummin'  awaay," 

**An'  I  niver  knaw 'd  whot  a  mean'd,  but  I  thowt  a  'ad  summut 

to  saay, 
An'  I  thowt  a  said  whot  a  owt  to  'a  said,  an'  I    corned  awaay." 

And  not  merely  is  this  true  of  the  comparatively  ignorant 
and  stolidly  inattentive,  but  many  sermons  are  not  under- 
stood by  the  better  class.  "The  audience  keep  nothing 
of  the  discourse  ;  they  carry  away,  in  retiring,  an  indistinct 
mass  of  remarks,  of  assertions,  of  appeals,  which  nothing 
co-ordinates  in  their  memory,  and  the  impressions  received 
are  summed  up  in  the  saddest  criticism  that  can  be  made 
by  a  devout  person  who  came  to  hear  with  attention :  I  do 
not  know  exactly  what  the  preacher  preached  about."  * 
Besides,  something  worse  may  happen  than  that  the  dis- 
course should  not  be  understood ;  it  may  be  misunderstood, 
utterly,  and  with  deplorable  results.  We  must  strive  not 
merely  to  render  it  possible  that  the  people  should  under- 
stand us,  but  impossible  that  they  should  misunderstand.f 
Again,  it  greatly  contributes  to  make  the  discoui'se 
pleasing.  "  Order  is  heaven's  first  law."  Even  those 
phenomena  in  nature  which  seem  most  irregular,  and 
those  scenes  which  appear  to  be  marked  by  the  wildest 
variety,  are  pervaded  by  a  subtle  order,  ^•  ■  i:  .:  which 
they  would  not  please.  Chaos  might  be  terrible,  but  could 
never  be  beautiful.  And  discourses,  which  are  pleasing  but 
appear  to  have  no  plan,  will  be  found  really  to  possess  an 
order  of  their  own,  however  unobtrusive  or  peculiar.  An 
ill-arranged  sermon  may  of  course  contain  particular  pas- 
sages that  are  pleasing,  but  even  these  would  appear  to 
still  greater  advantage  as  parts  of  an  orderly  whole,  and 

■5^  Coquerel,  Observ.  sur  la  Pr^d.  p.  160. 
t  Comp.  on  Persp*-!uity  of  Style,  Part  III,  chap.  2. 
21  * 


246    IMPORTANCE  OF  ARRANGEMENT. 

the  general  effect  of  that  whole  must  be  incomparably 
better.  Let  it  be  added  that  a  well-arranged  discourse 
Avill  much  more  surely  keep  the  attention  of  the  audience. 
And  this  not  merely  because  it  is  more  intelligible  and 
more  pleasing,  but  also  because,  being  conformed  to  the 
natural  laws  of  human  thinking,  it  will  more  readily  carry 
the  hearer's  thoughts  along  with  it. 

Further,  good  arrangement  makes  a  discourse  more  per- 
suasive. Both  in  presenting  motives  and  in  appeals  to 
feeling,  order  is  of  great  importance.  He  who  wishes  to 
break  a  hard  rock  with  his  sledge,  does  not  hammer  mis- 
cellaneously over  the  surface,  but  multiplies  his  blows 
upon  a  certain  point  or  along  a  certain  line.  They  who 
lift  up  huge  buildings  apply  their  motive  power  system- 
atically, at  carefully  chosen  points.  So  when  motives  are 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  will.*  And  the  hearer's  feelings 
will  be  much  more  powerfully  and  permanently  excited, 
when  appeals  are  made  in  some  natural  order.  "We  may, 
by  a  word  or  an  isolated  act,  give  a  movement  to  the  soul, 
inclining  it  immediately  to  a  certain  object,  to  perform  an 
act  of  will ;  but  this  movement  is  only  a  shock.     By  the 

same  means  we  may  repeat,  multiply  these  shocks 

Eloquence  consists  in  maintaining  movement  by  the  devel- 
opment of  a  thought  or  proof,  in  perpetuating  it,  according 
to  the  expression  of  Cicero,  *  What  is  eloquence  but  a  con- 
tinuous movement  of  the  soul ?  '" -j- 

And  finally,  it  causes  the  discourse  to  be  more  easily 
remembered. 

The  importance  of  arrangement  may  be  further  seen  by 
observing  what  are  the  principal  elements  of  good  arrange* 
ment?  They  appear  to  be  unity,  order,  and  proportion. 
It  might  seem  quite  unnecessary  to  urge  the  importance  of 
H7iity  in  a  discourse,  but  it  is  very  often  neglected  in  prac- 

*  As  to  the  order  of  Arguments,  see  above,  Part  I,  chap.  6,  g  4. 
t  Vinet,  p.  ?89. 


IMPORTANCE    OF    ARBANGEMENT.         247 

tice,  particularly  in  text-sermons  and  expository  sermons, 
which  are  frequently  made  up  of  two  or  three  little  sermons 
in  succession.  "Whether  the  unity  be  that  of  a  doctrinal 
proposition,  of  an  historical  person,  or  of  a  practical  design, 
in  some  way  there  must  be  unity.  And  not  only  this,  but 
order.  All  that  is  said  might  be  upon  the  same  subject, 
while  the  several  thoughts  by  no  means  follow  one  another 
according  to  their  natural  relations,  or  according  to  the 
design  of  the  discourse.  But  further,  there  must  be^ro- 
portion.  This  involves  two  things.  The  several  parts  of 
the  discourse,  whether  they  are  distinctly  indicated  or  not, 
must  be  so  treated  as  to  make  up  a  symmetrical  whole.  Not 
that  they  are  to  be  all  discussed  at  the  same  length,  but  at 
a  length  proportioned  to  their  relations  to  each  other  and 
to  the  entire 'discourse.  And  besides  this  proportion  of 
natural  symmetry,  there  is  that  of  specific  design.  One 
may  treat  substantially  the  same  topic,  in  essentially  the 
same  manner,  and  yet  greatly  vary  the  length  of  particular 
parts,  and  the  stress  laid  upon  them,  according  to  the 
object  then  and  there  had  in  view  ;  just  as  two  animals  are 
often  found  constructed  according  to  the  same  plan,  and 
with  equal  symmetry,  while  yet  certain  bones  are  of  ex- 
ceedingly different  size,  being  adapted  to  special  functions. 
Coquerel  says  that  the  lack  of  method  is  the  most 
common  fault  of  preaching,  and  the  most  inexcusable 
because  usually  the  result  of  insufficient  labor.  "  A  man 
cannot  give  himself  all  the  qualities  of  the  orator ;  but  by 
taking  the  necessary  pains,  he  can  connect  his  ideas,  and 
proceed  with  order  in  the  composition  of  a  discourse."  * 
Without  specific  talent  for  building  discourse,  one  will  not 
find  it  an  easy  task,  and  may  never  become  able  to  strike 
out  plans  that  will  be  remarkably  felicitous ;  but  a  fair 
degree  of  success  in  arrangement  is  certainly  within  the 
reach  of  all,  provided  they  are  willing  to  work. 
*  Coquerel,  p.  163. 


248      THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A    SERMON. 


CHAPTER   11. 

THE   SEVERAL   PARTS   OF   A   SERMON. 
§  1.  Introduction,     g  2.  Plan  and  Divisions.     ^  3.  Conclusion. 

THE  analysis  of  a  discourse  which  some  writers  have 
proposed  is  too  artificial.  Some  of  the  parts  which 
they  distinguish  are  very  often  blended  with  other  parts. 
The  exposition,  for  instance,  will  often  constitute  the  intro- 
duction, and  in  many  cases  no  formal  exposition  is  necessary 
or  appropriate.  The  proposition  of  the  subject  scarcely 
needs  to  be  treated  as  a  distinct  part  of  the  discourse. 
The  simplest  and  most  natural  analysis  would  seem  to  be 
that  which  gives  three  parts,  viz.  the  introduction,  the 
plan,  (including  divisions,  when  these  are  made,)  and  the 
conclusion. 

§  1.      THE   INTRODUCTION.* 

1.  It  can  scarcely  be  necessary  to  argue  at  length  to  the 
effect  that  sermons  ought  generally  to  have  an  introduc- 
tion. Men  have  a  natural  aversion  to  abruptness,  and 
delight  in  a  somewhat  gradual  approach.  A  building  is 
rarely  pleasing  in  appearance,  without  a  porch,  or  some- 
thing corresponding  to  a  porch.  The  shining  light  of 
dawn,  which  shineth  more  and  more  till  the  ])erfect  day, 
teaches  us  a  lesson.  And  so  any  composition  or  address 
which  has  no  introduction,  is  apt  to  look  incomplete.  An 
elaborate  piece. of  music  will  always  have  a  prelude,  or  at 

*  This  topic  is  very  fully  and  carefully  treated  by  Quintilian,  IV, 
1,  and  by  Claude.     See  also  Vinet  and  Hoppin. 


THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A    SERMON.      249 

least  a  few  introductory  notes;  and  in  poems,  histories, 
etc.,  there  is  usually  some  introduction.  The  same  thing 
is  true  as  to  very  many  books  of  the  Bible. 

The  introduction  has  two  chief  objects,  to  interest  our 
hearers  in  the  subject,  and  to  prepare  them  for  understand- 
ing it.  As  to  the  former,  a  preacher  may  usually,  it  is 
true,  count  on  a  certain  willingness  to  hear.  Not  many 
come  who  are  hostile  to  the  truth,  but  very  many,  alas ! 
who  are  sadly  careless  about  it.  And  a  much  more  lively 
attention  may  be  secured  by  an  interesting  introduction. 
"We  all  know  how  much  depends  in  the  ordinary  affairs 
of  life  upon  first  impressions.  The  success  of  his  sermon 
often  depends  upon  the  first  impressions  which  a  preacher 
makes  upon  his  hearers  in  his  exordium.  If  these  impres- 
sions be  favorable,  his  audience  will  listen  to  the  remain- 
ing part  of  his  discourse  with  pleasure  and  attention ;  and 
consequently,  with  profit."  *  Our  aim  should  be  to  excite 
not  merely  an  intellectual  interest,  but,  so  far  as  possible 
at  the  outset,  a  spiritual  and  practical  interest  —  to  bring 
them  into  sympathy  with  our  own  feeling,  and  attune  their 
minds  into  harmony  with  the  subject  we  design  to  present. 
One  may  sometimes  expressly  request  attention,  as  did- 
Moses  (Deut.  4  :  1),  Isaiah  (28  :  14),  Stephen  (Acts  7  :  2), 
and  our  Lord  (Matt.  15  :  10) ;  but  such  a  request,  if  often 
repeated,  would  lose  its  force,  and  it  is  usually  best  to  aim 
at  saying  something  which  will  at  once  interest  the  hearer's 
mind.  "  What  is  the  best  way,"  asked  a  young  preacher 
of  an  older  one,  '•  to  get  the  attention  of  the  congrega- 
tion ?  "     "  Give  'em  something  to  attend  to,"  was  the  gruff 

reply. 

The  other  object,  to  prepare  the  audience  for  under- 
standing the  subject,  is  obviously  very  important,  and  'to 
some  extent  can  often  be  effected.  But  our  efforts  in  this 
respect  must  be  carefully  guarded  against  the  danger  of 

*  Potter,  Sa-;.  Eloqaence,  p.  97. 


250   THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON. 

anticipating  something  which  properly  belongs  to  the  body 
of  the  discourse. 

The  German  preachers  very  often  give  an  introduction 
before  announcing  the  text.  This  fashion  appears  to  have 
originated  in  the  fact  that  most  of  them  are  required  to 
take  their  text  from  the  pericope^  or  lesson  appointed  for 
the  day,  so  that  it  may  be  assumed  as  to  some  extent  known 
already,  before  it  is  announced.  The  habitual  practice  of 
thus  beginning  with  an  introduction  is  apt  to  make  it  too 
general,  or  pointless,  or  far-fetched  —  faults  not  unfrequently 
seen  in  the  German  discourses  ;  but  some  introductions  of 
this  sort  are  exceedingly  felicitous,  and  the  practice  is  well 
worthy  of  occasional  adoption  among  ourselves. 

There  are  cases  in  which  it  is  best  to  dispense  with  in- 
troduction, and  plunge  at  once  into  the  discussion ;  for 
example,  when  the  sermon  must  needs  be  long,  or  when 
nothing  has  been  struck  out  that  would  make  a  really  good 
introduction.  In  familiar  addresses,  as  at  prayer-meetings, 
Sunday  School  meetings,  etc.,  this  course  is  quite  often 
preferable.  In  all  preaching,  let  there  be  a  good  introduc- 
tion, or  none  at  all.  "  Well  begun  is  half  done."  And 
ill  begun  is  apt  to  be  wholly  ruined. 

2.  The  sources  from  which  the  preacher  may  draw  intro- 
ductions are  extremely  numerous  and  various.  There  may, 
however,  be  some  advantage  in  classifying  them  as  follows : 

(1.)  The  text.  Wherever  the  meaning  of  the  jQxt  re- 
quires  explanation,  this  explanation  may  of  course  form 
the  introduction.  So,  too,  when  an  explanation  of  the 
context  would  throw  light  on  the  meaning  of  the  text.* 
These^eem  to  be  very  natural  sources ;  and  Robert  Hall, 
with  his  severe  taste,  commonly  began  with  some  explana- 
jjjin  ofthe  text  or  the  context,  preferring  this  to  more  am- 
bitious introductions.     And  if  not  for  explanation  proper, 

*  As  to  the  method  of  pulpit  exposition,  see  above,  Part  I,  chap. 


THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON.   251 

there  maybe  occa.^l')!!  for  illustration  of  the  text,  by  means 
of  historical  and  <reographical  knowledge,  such  as  will 
make  its  meaning,  "tliough"  not  more  clear,  yet  more  vivid 
and  interesting.  In  other  case.<,  some  account  of  the 
writer  of  the  text,  or  of  the  condition  of  any  particular 
persons  whom  he  addressed  (as  in  the  case  of  Paul;,  may 
serve  to  interest  hearers  in  the  text,  or  to  prepare  them  for 
understanding  it. 

(2.)  The  subject  to  be  discussed,  if  obvious  from  the 
mere  statement  of  the  text,  or  if  announced  at  the  outset, 
may  then  furnish  an  introduction  in  various  ways.  We 
may  remark  on  its  relation  to  some  other  subject,  e.  g.  "to 
the  genus,  of  which  the  subject  is  a  species,"  or  to  some 
opposed  or  similar  subject,  or  one  related  to  it  as  cause,  or 
consequence,  or  case  in  point.  Where  the  sermon  is  de- 
signed to  be  explanatory  or  practical,  an  introduction  on 
the  importance  of  the  subject  will  often  be  appropriate; 
where  the  sermon  is  to  establish  the  truth  of  a  propo- 
sition, or  to  exhibit  its  importance,  the  introduction 
will  frequently  explain  the  nature  of  the  subject  in- 
volved. The  preacher  "may  state  the  intellectual  advan- 
tages to  be  derived  from  discussing  such  a  theme.  The 
subject  may  be  the  doctrine  of  moral  evil,  or  that  of 
divine  sovereignty  ;  it  may  be  stated  at  the  beginning, 
that  these  are  the  greatest  problems  of  the  human  mind 
meeting  the  philosopher  as  well  as  the  theologian ;  that 
they  have  called  forth  the  strength  of  the  best  intellects 
of  the  race  ;  that  no  problems  are  more  difficult,  and  there- 
fore none  more  deserving  of  the  attention  of  thinking 
minds.  He  may  state  the  connections  of  the  subject  with 
other  more  practical  spiritual  truths.  He  may  remove  the 
prejudice  that  the  doctrine  has  no  immediate  practical 
bearing  or  utility,  even  as  depravity,  for  instance,  or  the 
doctrine  of  sin,  lies  in  one  sense,  at  the  base  of  the  whole 
Christian  system,  of  the  atonement,  regeneration,  holiness, 


254      THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A    SERMON. 

3.  Let  us  turn  to  consider  the  qualities  of  a  good  Intro- 
duction. 

The  introduction  must  present  some  thought  closely 
related  to  the  theme  of  discourse,  so  as  to  lead  to  the  theme 
with  naturalness  and  ease,  and  yet  a  thought  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  discussion.  Inexperienced  preachers  very 
frequently  err  by  anticipating  in  the  introduction  some- 
thing which  belongs  to  the  body  of  the  discourse;  and  the 
danger  of  doing  this  should  receive  their  special  atten- 
tion. 

As  a  rule,  the  introduction  should  not  aim  to  give  in- 
struction separate  and  apart  from  the  lessons  of  the  dis- 
course. Its  design  is  altogether  preparatory.  The  preacher 
will  often  find  himself  tempted,  especially  in  introductions 
drawn  from  the  text  or  context,  to  remark  in  passing  upon 
interesting  matters  which  are  somehow  suggested,  but  are 
foreign  to  his  purpose  on  that  occasion.  This  temptation 
should  be  resisted,  except  in  very  peculiar  cases.  You 
have  determined  to  carry  the  audience  along  a  certain 
line  of  thought,  hoping  to  arrive  at  a  definite  and  import- 
ant conclusion.  Do  not  first  wander  about  and  stray 
awhile  into  other  paths,  but  lead  on  towards  the  route 
selected,  and  enter  it. 

The  introduction  should  generally  consist  of  a  single 
thought;  we  do  not  want  a  porch  to  a  porch.  But  it 
is  frequently  appropriate  to  present  some  introductory 
thought,  and  afterwards  give  an  exposition,  which  in  such 
cases  becomes  a  part  of  the  body  of  the  discourse,  or  else 
constitutes  a  sort  of  halt,  while  we  clear  the  way  for  the 
discussion. 

It  is  desirable  to  avoid  the  practice  of  beginning  with 
some  very  broad  and  commonplace  generality,  as  with 
reference  to  human  nature  or  life,  to  the  universe  or  the 
Divine  Being.  Of  course  there  is  sometimes  real  occasion 
for  this,  but  many  preachers  practise  it  as  an  habitual 


THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A    SERMON.      255 

method,  and  it  is  apt  to  sound  like  au  opening  promise  of 
dulness  —  a  platitude  to  start  on. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  introduction  must  not  seem  to 
promise  too  much,  in  its  thoughts,  style,  or  delivery.  Let 
it  be  such  as  to  excite  interest  and  awaken  expectation, 
provided  the  expectation  can  be  fairly  met  by  the  body  of 
the  discourse.  It  should  not  be  highly  argumentative,  nor 
highly  impassioned.  As  to  the  latter,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  even  if  the  preacher  is  greatly  excited  at  the 
outset,  the  audience  usually  are  not,  and  he  had  better 
restrain  himself,  so  as  not  to  get  beyond  the  range  of  their 
sympathies.  When  Cicero  broke  out  with  his  opening 
words  against  Catiline,  the  Senate  was  already  much 
excited ;  and  so  with  Massillon  at  the  funeral  of  Louis  the 
Great.*  Such  exceptional  cases  must  be  decided  as  they 
arise.  "  It  is  the  privilege  of  talent  and  the  fruit  of  study 
and  experience,  to  know  when  to  venture  and  when  to 
abstain.  It  cannot  be  allowed  to  teaching,  strictly  so 
called,  to  set  aside  talent  or  anticipate  the  dictates  of  ex- 
perience." t  Moreover,  while  earnestly  seeking  to  make 
the  introduction  interesting  and  engaging,  we  must  shun 
the  sensational,  and  the  pretentious.  Whatever  savors  of 
display  is  exceedingly  objectionable  in  a  preacher,  and 
particularly  at  the  outset.  And  he  should  not  merely 
begin  with  personal  modesty,  but  also  with  official  modesty, 
reserving  for  some  later  period  of  the  sermon  anything 
which  it  may  be  proper  to  state  with  the  authority  belong- 
ing to  his  office. 

A  good  introduction  would,  in  general,  be  exclusively 
adapted  to  the  particular  discourse.  In  some  cases,  a  cer- 
tain general  thought  might  with  equal  propriety  introduce 
several  different  subjects.  Thus  some  account  of  Paul 
might  form  the  introduction  to  sermons  on  various  pas. 

*  "My  brethren,  God  only  is  great,"  were  his  first  words, 
t  Vinet,  p.  105. 


266      THE    SEVERAL     PARTS    OF    A     SERMON. 

sages  of  his  writiDgs;  yet  the  account  must  in  almost 
every  case  be  at  least  slightly  varied,  if  it  is  to  be  ex- 
actly adapted  to  the  design.  So  "with  the  description  of 
a  Scripture  locality ;  and  so,  to  some  extent,  with  intro- 
ductions personal  to  the  speaker.  Lawyers  make  many 
speeches  on  very  similar  subjects  or  occasions ;  and  this 
fact  partly  explains  Cicero's  statement  that  he  kept  some 
introductions  on  hand,  for  any  speech  they  might  suit-^ 
as  was  also  done  by  Demosthenes.*  We  should  beware 
of  set  phrases  and  stereotyped  forms  of  introduction ;  the 
people  very  soon  begin  to  recognize  them,  and  the  effect  is 
then  anything  else  than  to  awaken  interest  and  excite 
curiosity.  Nowhere  is  it  more  important  to  have  the 
stimulus  and  charm  of  variety,  and  this  is  best  attained 
by  habitually  seeking  to  give  the  introduction  a  specific 
and  exact  adaptation. 

The  introduction  must  not  be  too  long.  An  eminent 
preacher,  much  inclined  to  this  fault,  was  one  day  accosted 
by  a  plain  old  man  as  follows:  "Well,  you  kept  us  so 
long  in  the  porch  this  morning  that  we  hardly  got  into 
the  house  at  all."  Of  course  it  may  sometimes  be  much 
longer  than  would  be  generally  proper;  and  the  attempt 
of  some  writers  to  tell  how  many  sentences  an  introduc- 
tion should  contam,  is  exceedingly  unwise.  But  "where 
one  sermon  is  faulty  from  being  too  abruptly  introduced, 
one  hundred  are  faulty  from  a  long  and  tiresome  pre- 
face." f 

The  introduction,  though  simple  and  inelaborate,  should 
be  carefully  prepared.  Quintilian  remarks  that  a  faulty 
proem  may  look  like  a  scarred  face ;  and  that  he  will  cer- 
tainly be  thought  a  very  bad  helmsman  who  lets  the  ship 
strike  in  going  out  of  the  harbor.J  The  extemporaneous 
speaker  should  know  quite  exactly  what  he  is  to  say  in 

*  Comp.  Vinet,  p.  301.  f  Shedd,  p.  182. 

X  Quint.  IV,  1,  61. 


THE    SEVEKAL    PARTS    OF    A    SERMON.      257 

the  introduction.  But  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  he 
ought,  as  is  frequently  recommended  and  practised,  to  have 
the  introduction  written,  when  the  remainder  of  the  dis- 
course is  unwritten.  It  is  too  apt  to  seem  formal,  and  the 
transition  to  the  unwritten  to  be  abrupt  and  precipitous, 
something  like  stepping  from  a  wharf  into  deep  water,  as 
compared  with  quietly  wading  out  from  the  shore.  It  will 
sometimes  happen  that  at  an  early  stage  of  the  prepara- 
tion, an  introduction  will  occur  to  the  mind ;  more  com- 
monly, it  has  to  be  struck  out  or  selected  after  the  principal 
materials  have  been  gathered.  But  as  to  the  composition 
of  the  sermon  in  detail,  (whether  it  be  written  or  unwritten 
composition,)  the  introduction  should  be  composed  before 
the  body  of  the  discourse.  This  is  the  natural  order,  and 
the  finished  introduction  will  assist  the  preacher  in  com- 
posing the  remainder,  somewhat  as  it  will  help  the  hearers. 
An  introduction  to  a  discourse  is  quite  different  from  a 
preface  to  a  book. 

The  discussion  of  this  subject  may  close  with  a  useful 
remark  from  Vinet :  "Among  experienced  preachers  we 
find  few  examples  of  exordiums  altogether  defective ;  we 
find  few  good  ones  among  preachers  at  their  beginning. 
We  hence  naturally  infer,  that  there  is  in  this  part  of  the 
discourse  something  of  special  delicacy,  but  nothing  which 
demands  peculiar  faculties."  * 

§  2.      PLAN   AND   DIVISIONS. 

1.  The  body  of  the  discourse  must  be  constructed  on 
some  plan,  or  it  is  not  a  discourse  at  all.  Though  there 
be  no  divisions,  and  no  formal  arrangement  of  any  kind, 
yet  the  thoughts  must  follow  each  other  according  to  the 
natural  laws  of  thought.  Men  who  rely  on  their  powers 
of  absolute  extemporizing,  or  who  imagine  themselves  to 

*  Vinet,  p.  297. 
22* 


268      THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A    SERMON. 

possess  a  quasi-inspiration,  usually  stagger  and  stray  in 
every  direction,  following  no  definite  line,  and  accomplish- 
ing very  little,  save  where  passion  comes  in,  and  strikes 
out  an  order  of  its  own.* 

The  plan  of  a  discourse  in  the  broadest  sense  includes 
the  introduction  and  the  conclusion,  but  as  these  are  here 
discussed  separately,  we  may,  for  convenience,  speak  of 
the  plan  apart  from  them. 

It  is  not  well  to  call  the  body  of  the  discourse  the  proof, 
as  a  general  name,  though  some  able  writers  have  done  so. 
The  treatment  frequently  consists  of  proof,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  but  frequently  also  of  explanation,  or  the  impres- 
sive exhibition  of  a  theme,  without  any  process  of  proof 
In  hortatory  sermons  there  is  a  series  of  motives,  but  to 
bring  these  to  bear  on  the  wdll  is  a  very  different  thing 
from  proving,  though  often  confounded  w'ith  it.f  After 
excluding  the  introduction  and  conclusion,  the  remain- 
der is  perhaps  best  called  the  treatment  of  the  subject, 
or  simply  the  body  of  the  discourse.  But  our  present 
concern  with  this  is  to  consider  the  fact  that  it  must  have 
a  plan. 

Sometimes  a  plan  will  occur  to  us  with  the  subject,  or 
on  very  little  reflection.  In  other  cases  we  only  get  a 
variety  of  separate  thoughts.  It  is  well  then  to  jot  them 
down  as  they  occur,  to  make  the  thoughts  objective,  so 
that  we  may  draw  off  and  look  at  them,  and  sooner  or 
later  a  plan  of  treatment  will  present  itself  This  effort  to 
make  out  an  arrangement  will  often  suggest  to  us  new 
thoughts  which  otherwise  we  should  never  have  gained.^ 

One  ought  to  seek  not  merely  for  some  plan,  but  for  the 
best.  "  There  are  plans  energetic  and  rich,  which,  apply- 
ing the  lever  as  deeply  as  possible,  raise  the  entire  mass 
of  the  subject;  there  are  others  which  escape  the  deepest 

*  Comp.  chap.  1,  on  the  importance  of  arrangement. 

j  Comp.  Part  I,  chap.  8,  on  Application.  %  Comp.  chap.  1. 


THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON.   259 

divisions  of  the  matter,  and  which  raise,  so  to  speak,  only 
one  layer  of  the  subject.  Here  it  is,  especially  here,  in 
the  conception  of  plans,  that  we  distinguish  those  orators 
who  are  capable  of  the  good,  from  those  who  are  capable 
of  the  better  —  of  that  better,  to  say  the  truth,  which  is 

tlie  decisive  evidence  of  talent  or  of  labor Every 

one  should  strive,  as  far  as  possible,  for  this  better,  and 
not  be  content  with  the  first  plan  which  may  present 
itself  to  his  thought,  unless,  after  having  fathomed  it,  he 
finds  it  sufficient  for  his  purpose,  suited  to  exhaust  his  sub- 
ject, to  draw  forth  its  power  —  unless,  in  a  word,  he  can 
see  nothing  beyond  it."  *  The  plan  ought  to  be  simple, 
not  only  free  from  obscurity,  but  free  from  all  straining 
after  efifect,  and  yet  ought,  so  far  as  possible,  to  he  fresh 
and  striking.  So  many  sermons  follow  the  beaten  track, 
in  which  we  can  soon  foresee  all  that  is  coming,  as  to  make 
it  a  weary  task  even  for  devout  hearers  to  listen  attentively. 
One  feels  inclined  to  utter  a  plaintive  cry,  "Wortliv  bro- 
ther, excellent  brother,  if  you  could  only  manage  to  drive 
us  sometimes  over  a  diflTerent  road,  even  if  much  le^ssmooth, 
even  if  you  do  not  know  it  very  well  —  I  am  so  tired  of 
this ! "  And  it  is  only  a  plan  that  strikes,  that  has  any 
chance  of  being  remembered.  Still,  we  must  carefully 
avoid  mere  sensational,  odd,  or  "smart"  plans.  A  sermon 
might  excite  much  interest,  and  be  remembered  long,  by 
reason  of  such  qualities,  without  doing  half  as  much  real 
good  as  another  that  was  heard  quietly  and  soon  for- 
gotten, but  made,  so  far  as  it  went,  a  salutary  impression.f 
We  must  also  avoid  great  formality  of  plan. 

"  May  I  be  permitted  to  remark,  though  it  seem  a  digression, 
that  in  the  mode  of  conducting  our  public  ministrations,  we  are, 
perhaps,  too  formal  and  mechanical;  that  in  tlie  distribution  of 
the  matter  of  our  sermons  we  indulge  too  little  variety,  and  expos- 

^  Vinet,  p.  276-7. 

•f  Comp.  as  to  selection  of  Texts,  Part  I,  chap.  1. 


260      THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A    SERMON. 

ing  all  our  plan  in  all  its  parts,  abate  the  edge  of  curiosity  by 
enabling  tlie  hearer  to  anticipate  what  we  intend  to  advance.  Why 
should  that  force  which  surprise  gives  to  every  emotion  derived 
from  just  and  affecting  sentiments  be  banished  from  the  pulpit, 
when  it  is  found  of  such  moment  in  every  other  kind  of  public 
address  ?  I  cannot  but  imagine  the  first  pre.ichers  of  the  gospel 
appeared  before  their  audience  with  a  more  free  and  unfettered  air 
than  is  consistent  with  the  narrow  trammels  to  which,  in  these 
latter  ages,  discourses  from  the  pulpit  are  confined.  The  sublime 
emotions  with  which  they  were  fraught  would  have  rendered  them 
impatient  of  such  restrictions  ;  nor  could  they  suffer  the  impetuous 
stream  of  argument,  expostulation,  and  pathos  to  be  weakened,  by 
diverting  it  into  the  artificial  reservoirs  prepared  in  the  heads  and 
particulars  of  a  modern  sermon.  Method,  we  are  aware,  is  an 
essential  ingredient  in  every  discourse  designed  for  the  instruction 
of  mankind,  but  it  ought  never  to  force  itself  on  the  attention  as  an 
object  apart;  never  appear  to  be  an  end,  instead  of  an  instrument; 
or  beget  a  suspicion  of  the  sentiments  being  introduced  for  the 
sake  of  the  method,  not  the  method  for  the  sentiments.  Let  the 
experiment  be  tried  on  some  of  the  best  specimens  of  ancient  elo 
quence  ;  let  an  oration  of  Cicero  or  Demosthenes  l)e  stretched  upon 
a  Procrustes'  bed  of  this  sort,  and,  if  I  am  not  greatly  mistaken,  the 
flame  and  enthusiasm  which  have  excited  admiration  in  all  ages 
will  instantly  evaporate;  yet  no  man  perceives  a  Avant  of  method 
in  these  immortal  compositions,  nor  can  anything  be  conceived 
more  remote  from  incoherent  rhapsody  "* 

As  regards  formality,  there  has  been  much  improvement 
during  the  present  century,  but  many  preachers  are  still 
stiff,  uniform  and  monotonous  in  their  plans.f 

2.  The  plan  of  a  discourse  will  usually  embrace  a  state- 

*  Robert  Hall,  Sermon  on  the  Discouragements  and  Supports  of  a  Chris- 
tian Minister,  Works,  Vol.  I,  p.  140. 

■f  Examples  of  strikingly  felicitous  plans  may  be  frequently  met 
with  in  the  sermons  of  Saurin,  William  Jay,  and  Spurgeon  ;  see 
also  R.  Hall  on  the  Glory  of  God  in  Concealing,  and  J.  M.  Mason 
on  Messiah's  Throne,  the  latter  having  a  considerable  multiplica- 
tion of  divisions  and  subdivisions,  but  admirably  managed.  The 
plans  of  Spurgeon  incline  to  formality,  those  of  Beecher  are  per- 
haps too  d'BCursive  and  unsymmetrical. 


THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A     SERMOX.       2G1 

ment  of  the  subject,  what  is  techiiieally  called  the  Frojio- 
aition.  There  is  frequently  no  need  of  this,  the  subject 
being  obvious  from  the  text,  or  sufficiently  indicated  by 
the  introduction.  In  most  cases,  however,  the  subject 
sliould  be  distinctly  stated,  even  in  many  text-sermons  and 
expository  sermons,  and  sometimes  the  proposition  requires 
great  care.*  As  to  its  form,  the  proposition  may  be  logical 
or  rhetorical.  "  Religion  produces  happiness"  would  be  a 
logical,  "The  pleasures  of  piety"  a  rhetorical  proposition. 
The  former  conduces  to  unity,  consecutive  thinking,  argu- 
mentative foj-ce ;  the  latter  to  freedom  and  variety  of  treat- 
ment, giving  room  for  proof,  impressive  exhibition,  appli- 
cation, or  whatever  mode  of  treatment  may  be  desired.  A 
preacher  will  be  likely  to  prefer  one  or  the  other  according 
to  his  turn  of  mind  and  training.  Whichever  he  prefers, 
he  ought  frequently  to  employ  the  other,  for  the  sake  of  his 
own  improvement  and  of  variety  in  his  discourses.  Some- 
times the  two  forms  may  both  be  used  in  the  same  dis- 
course; thus  a  man  might  announce  as  his  subject,  "Reli- 
gion produces  happiness,  or  the  pleasures  of  piety."  A 
variety  of  the  logical  is  the  interrogative  form.  This  some- 
times awakens  attention  by  seeming  tq  leave  it  an  open 
question,  to  be  decided  on  the  present  occasion,  whether 
the  proposition  involved  is  true  or  false,  or  by  stimulating 
curiosity  as  to  the  precise  answer  to  the  question  which  the 
preacher  will  give.  In  some  cases  it  is  more  consistent 
with  modesty  to  propose  an  inquiry  than  a  process  of 
proof.  And  where  the  subject  requires  to  be  discussed 
both  negatively  and  affirmatively,  the  interrogative  form 
of  proposition  is  particularly  convenient.  "Should  the 
preacher's  subject  be,  for  instance.  Evidences  of  personal 
piety,  it  would  be  more  congruous,  instead  of  exposing 
under  this  statement,  in  several  items,  insufficient  or  false 

*  As  to  the  propriety  of   withholding   the   proposition   through 
policy,  see  Part  I,  chap    6,  §  1. 


262   THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON. 

evidences,  and  then  mentioning  in  the  same  series  the  satis 
factory  evidences,  to  raise  the  inquiry,  What  are  genuine 
evidences  of  piety  ?  In  answering  this  inquiry,  he  might 
either  in  a  didactic  manner  deny  the  sufficiency  of  certain 
supposed  evidences,  or  propose  various  questions,  such  as 
Is  such  a  quality,  or  course  of  conduct,  a  genuine  evi- 
dence ?  Is  such  another  ?  etc.,  ....  and  then  exhibit  the 
true  evidences."  * 

The  proposition,  or  statement  of  the  subject;  should  be 
complete  (i.  e.  including  all  that  it  is  proposed  to  treat), 
simple  and  clear,  brief  and  attractive. t  It  may  sometimes 
be  repeated,  whether  in  different  forms,  or  in  other  but 
equivalent  terms  ;  and  occasionally  the  hearers  are  gradu- 
ally brought  up  to  it  by  a  series  of  statements,  the  last  of 
which  is  definite  and  precise,  seeming  to  strike  the  very 
heart  of  the  matter. 

~  3.  It  is  a  question  of  much  practical  importance  whether 
the  plan  of  a  discourse  ought  to  include  Divisions,  and  if 
so,  what  should  be  their  number,  character,  order,  and 
general  management. J 

(1.)  Two  things  are  obviously  necessary  to  an  eflTective 
discourse ;  that  there  shall  be  a  plan,  as  we  have  seen,  and 
that  there  shall  be  movement,  progress.  These  requisites 
must  be  harmonized.  The  movement  must  not  be  wild 
and  irregular,  like  undisciplined  cavalry,  and  the  orderly 
plan  must  not  involve  such  interruptions  and  pauses  as 
would  retard  movement.  Furthermore,  as  a  work  of  art, 
a  discourse  ought  not  to  have  its  joints  obtrusively  promi- 
nent,  nor  its  several  members  attracting  too  much  of  sepa- 
rate attention,  but  all  should  stand  forth  as  one  symmetrical 

*  Ripley,  p.  54.     Comp.  p.  52-4. 

f  Comp.  Otto,  Prak.  Theol.  s.  332. 

t  The  term  'heads'  is  practically  synonymous  with  'divisions.' 
The  distinction  between  division  and  partition  is  too  refined  for  our 
present  purpose. 


A 


THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A    SERMON.      263 

whole.  The  Greek  and  Roman  orators,  greatly  concerned 
to  make  the  speech  a  finished  work  of  art,  and  often  anx- 
ious to  hide  the  labor  bestowed  upon  the  preparation,  made 
no  clearly  marked  divisions.  Yet  in  all  cases  they  followed 
a  definite  plan,  and  advanced  in  an  orderly  manner,  even 
as  Horace  says,*  speaking  of  poetry,  that  the  power  and 
the  beauty  of  order  consists  in  saying  just  now  what  just 
now  ought  to  be  said,  and  postponing  for  the  present  all 
the  rest.  In  much  the  same  manner  the  Christian  Fathers 
preached.  But  the  great  Schoolmen  of  the  middle  ages, 
applying  the  most  minute  logical  analysis  to  all  subjects  of 
philosophy  and  religion,  established  a  fashion  which  was 
soon  followed  in  preaching  also.  The  young  preachers, 
being  trained  by  the  books  they  read  and  by  the  oral 
teaching  at  the  Universities  to  nothing  else  than  this 
minute  analytical  discussion,  made  the  mistake  so  often 
made  still,  of  carrying  lecture -room  methods  into  the 
pulpit.  Analysis  became  the  rage.  Scarcely  anything 
was  thought  of  but  clear  division  and  logical  concatena- 
tion, and  to  this  was  to  a  great  extent  sacrificed  all  ora- 
torical movement  and  artistic  harmony.  Too  much  of  the 
preaching  of  all  the  modern  centuries  has  been  marred  by 
this  fault.  Analytical  exposition  of  topics,  and  elaborate 
argumentation,  have  been  the  great  concern,  to  the  com- 
parative neglect  of  simplicity  and  naturalness,  of  animated 
movement  and  practical  power.  Preachers,  especially  the 
educated,  have  too  often  regarded  instruction  and  convic- 
tion as  the  aim  of  their  labors,  when  they  are  but  means 
of  leading  men  to  the  corresponding  feeling,  determination, 
and  action.  And  the  custom  being  thus  established,  it  has 
been  followed,  simply  because  it  was  the  custom,  by  many 
practifcal  and  deeply  earnest  preachers,  who  limited  and 
overcame  the  evils  of  the  method  as  best  they  could. 
Two  centuries  ago,  when  the  excessive  multiplication 

*  Ars  Poetica,  42. 


264   THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON. 

of  formal  divisions  and  equally  formal  subdivisions  was 
almost  universal  in  France  as  well  as  in  England,  Fenelon 
inveighed  vehemently  against  the  whole  fashion,  urging  a 
return  to  the  methods  of  the  ancient  orators,*  and  on  this 
question  almost  all  subsequent  writers  have  taken  sides. 
Yet  a  certain  formality  of  division  and  of  general  order  has 
continued  to  be  common  in  France  and  Germany,  and  for 
the  most  part  in  England  and  America.  Dr.  Arnold  of 
Rugby  set  the  example,  and  urged  it  upon  others,  of  avoid- 
ing divisions,  and  making  the  sermon  a  very  informal 
address,  and  since  his  time  many  preachers  in  the  Church 
of  England,  such  as  Trench  and  Kingsley,  have  followed 
that  course.f  But  it  is  worthy  of  special  notice  that  the 
two  ablest  and  most  generally  admired  preachers  the 
Church  of  England  has  recently  produced,  Robertson  and 
Liddon,  both  regularly  make  divisions,  and  commonly 
indicate  them  in  passing,  while  the  former  frequently 
states  his  divisions  beforehand,  and  also  marks  numerous 
subdivisio^s. 

From  these  principles  and  facts,  what  are  we  to  con- 
clude ?  Distinctly  marked  divisions  are  not  necessary,  and 
need  not  be  made  where  the  plan  of  the  discourse  can  be 
easily  followed  without  them ;  only  the  preacher  must 
remember  in  judging  on  this  point,  that  the  plan  is  of 
course  familiar  to  him,  and  his  hearers  may  not  note 
transitions  which  are  obvious  to  his  eye,  unless  attention 
be  somehow  called  to  them.  But  while  not  necessary, 
distinctly  marked  divisions  will  usually  be  of  service,  not 
only  in  making  the  train  of  thought  plain  to  the  hearers, 
but  also  of  service  to  the  preacher  himself,  both  as  com- 
pelling to  logical  correctness  and  completeness  of  prepara- 
tion, and  as  helping  him  to  remember,  in  extemporaneous 

*  Fenelon,  Dialogues  on  Eloq,,  Dial.  II. 

j-  There  is  said  to  be  of  late  a  similar  movement  on  the  part  of 
some  preachers  in  Germany. 


THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A    SERMON.      265 

delivery.  In  every  particular  sermon  or  class  of  sermons, 
we  must  decide  the  case  upon  its  own  merits  ;  but  it  will 
commonly  be  best  to  make  divisions.  Whether  they  shall 
be  slightly  or  broadly  marked,  and  how  carefully  the 
entrance  upon  a  new  division  should  be  indicated,  must 
also  be  decided  according  to  the  merits  of  the  case.  Where 
the  subject  specially  requires  explanation  and  argument, 
it  will  commonly  be  advantageous  to  have  clearly  stated 
divisions,  and  frequently  subdivisions  also ;  but  these  must 
not  be  so  multiplied,  nor  so  stated,  as  to  prevent  the  dis- 
course from  standing  out  as  a  living  whole,  or  to  inter- 
rupt its  progressive  movement  towards  the  practical  end 
in  view. 

Alexander  says  *  that  "  as  much  as  a  discourse  gains  in 
method  and  articulation  by  composing  it  according  to  a 
logical  analysis  or  programme,  so  much  it  loses  in  rapid- 
ity, richness  and  animation ;  "  and  so  he  inclines  to  favor 
Fenelon's  view.  But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  Alexander 
formed  this  judgment  from  his  experience  in  middle  age, 
with  a  thoroughly  disciplined  mind,  accustomed  to  com- 
pose in  logical  order.  In  such  circumstances  a  man  is  apt 
to  grow  weary  of  all  regulated  methods,  so  as  to  feel  relief 
in  disregarding  them,  and  he  may  often  allow  himself  to 
do  so,  because  his  mind  may  be  relied  on  to  achieve  a  spon- 
taneous order.  But  for  most  men,  especially  the  young, 
the  case  is  otherwise,  and  such  remarks  were  probably 
never  designed  for  them. 

It  is  frequently  said  that  secular  orators  at  the  present 
day  make  no  formal  divisions.  But  they  often  do,  par- 
ticularly in  elaborate  addresses  to  a  great  popular  audi- 
ence, sometimes  even  announcing  beforehand  the  series  of 
topics  they  mean  to  discuss.  In  most  of  the  speeches  made 
by  lawyers  and  statesmen,  the  history  of  thr  case  or  the 
nature  of  the  question  determines  the  order  of  discussion. 

'^  Ihougbts  on  Preaching,  p.  oii.     Comp.  p.  32. 
23 


266      THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A    SERMON. 

and  leaves  no  occasion  for  dividing  the  subject  on  any 
other  principle. 

(2.)  As  to  the  number  of   divisions,  we  must  consult 
simplicity,  and  at  the  same  time  vividness  and  variety.     It 
is  of  course  more  simple  to  have  but  few,  and  in  many 
cases  two  divisions  will  be  most  natural   and   pleasing. 
Vinet  says  of  Bossuet  that  "he  delights,  like  Fenelon,  in 
dichotomy;  and  in  my  judgment,  divisions  into  two  parts 
are   ordinarily  the   most  tasteful."*     But  as  a  uniform 
method,  the   twofold   arrangement   scarcely  presents   the 
requisite  variety.     It  is   also  highly   desirable   that   the 
divisions,  as  stated,  should  be  interesting,  having  the  vivid- 
ness which  belongs  to  concrete  or  specific  thoughts,  and 
this  can  often  be  attained  only  by  having  several  divisions, 
since  the  reduction  to  a  smaller  number  would  render  them 
abstract  or  general.     "Take  the  topic,  In  what  co7isists 
the  glory  of  gospel  preaching  f     In  that  it  1)  is  appointed 
by  the  Son  of  God ;  2)  makes  known  the  will  of  God ;  3) 
promises  the  grace  of  God  ;  4)  is  performed  in  the  strength 
of  God ;    5)  is   attended  by  the  blessing  of  God,  and  6) 
leads  souls  to  the  presence  of  God.     The  division  might 
be  simplified:  1)  in  its  establishment;  2)  in  its  subject, 
3)  in  its  operation  and  effects.     But  the  former  is  to  be 
preferred  because  more  striking."  f     Yet  when  the  heads 
become  as  many  as  five  or  six,  they  must  follow  each  other 
in  a  very  natural  order,  or  the  average  hearer  will  not 
easily  retain  them  in  mind.     Accordingly,  judicious  and 
skilful  preachers  seldom  have  more  than  four  heads. 

We  are  thus  prepared  to  understand  why  it  is  that  ser- 

■  mons  oftener  have  three  divisions  than  any  other  number. 

This  is  a  fact  long  observed,  and  made  the  subject  of  small 

wit  —  "three  heads,  like  a  sermon."  J     No  doubt  many 

*  Vinet,  p.  334.  f  Otto.  Prak.  Theol.  s.  355. 

X  Coquerel,   p.  149,  quotes   ridicule   o'  it  by  La  Bruyfere,  in  tlie 
reign  of  Louis  XIV. 


THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON.   267 

preachers  have  tried  to  make  out  three  divisions,  even  where 
nothing  called  for  it,  simply  from  habit,  or  from  blindly 
following  a  custom.  But  the  custom  itself  must  have  had 
Bome  natural  origin.  Now  a  principal  reason  for  it  is  seeu 
from  the  considerations  stated  above ;  three  divisions  will 
give  a  goodly  variety,  without  distracting  attention,  or 
burdening  the  memory.  And  in  many  directions  we  meet 
with  similar  or  analogous  facts.  Thus  one  of  the  com- 
monest schemes  of  discourse  will  naturally  be,  What? 
Why?  What  then?  i.  e.  explain,  prove,  apply.  A  syl- 
logism, when  fully  stated,  furnishes  three  propositions. 
There  cannot  be  a  climax  without  at  least  three  steps. 
Three  gives  the  idea  of  completeness  —  beginning,  middle, 
end.  When  men  start  in  a  race,  the  signal  is  always,  "  One, 
two,  three,"  neither  more  nor  less.  The  Scriptures  often  use 
a  threefold  repetition  as  the  most  emphatic  and  impressive ; 
Holy,  holy,  holy,  Ask,  seek,  knock,  etc.  Often  logical 
and  rhetorical  reasons  combine  to  fix  three  as  the  number. 
Thus,  The  resurrection  of  the  body  is  1)  possible,  2)  pro- 
bable, 3)  certain.  To  carry  religion  into  daily  life  is 
1)  possible,  2)  desirable,  3)  obligatory.  Piety  is  for  every 
young  man  1)  a  thing  to  be  respected,  2)  a  thing  to  be 
desired,  3)  a  thing  to  be  sought."^  These  considerations 
go  to  show  that  it  is  not  accidental,  and  not  strange,  that 
elaborate  discourses  so  often  have  three  divisions.  The 
fact  that  this  is  the  commonest  number  may  incline  us  to 
avoid  it,  unless  required  by  the  natural  arrangement  of 
the  subject ;  but  when  it  is  so  required,  as  must  very  fre- 
quently be  the  case,  let  us  employ  it  without  hesitation. 
In  general,  then,  one  should  make  the  most  natural  divi- 
sion, considering  the  subject  and  the  practical  design  of 
the  discourse,  but  not  often  allowing  the  number  of-  heads 

*  So  Cicero,  in  the  oration  for  the  Manilian  Law,  argues,  "You 
must  choose  a  general ;  you  must  choose  an  able  general ;  you  must 
choose  Cneius  Pompeius."     Hoppin,  p.  155. 


268   THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON. 

to  exceed  four.  That  in  so  doing  the  number  most  fre- 
quently occurring  will  be  three,  and  next  to  that  two,  is 
what  he  may  expect. 

(3.)  The  character  of  the  divisions  must  be  determined 
by  their  relation  to  the  subject  proposed  and  to  each  other. 
As  to  the  former,  it  is  obvious  that  no  one  division  should 
be  coextensive  with  the  subject ;  and  yet  inexperienced 
sermonizers  sometimes  unconsciously  have  it  so.  More 
important  is  the  inquiry,  whether  the  divisions  should 
exhaust  the  subject.  This  depends  upon  what  we  mean  by 
the  subject.  The  general  subject  treated  will  very  seldom 
be  exhaustively  divided  in  a  sermon ;  but  the  view  of  it 
proposed  in  the  discourse  ought  to  be  exhausted  by  the 
divisions.  That  is  to  say,  they  ought  to  exhaust  the  pro- 
position, or  we  might  say,  the  subject  proposed.  Yet  even 
in  this  narrower  sense,  the  oratorical  division  and  sub- 
division of  a  subject  will  not  commonly  exhaust  it  as  a 
logical  analysis  would  do.  The  latter  must  rigorously  set 
forth  "  all  and  singular  "  the  contents  of  the  proposition. 
The  former  requires  that  its  divisions  shall  with  a  certain 
general  completeness  cover  the  whole  ground  of  the  pro- 
position, so  as  to  make  the  discourse  a  structure,  but  does 
not  always  demand  scientific  accuracy  in  that  respect ;  and 
as  to  subdivisions,  it  is  very  easy  to  carry  analysis  farther 
than  conduces  to  practical  effect  in  speaking.  Barrow, 
whose  sermons  are  remarkable  specimens  of  completeness 
in  treating  the  subject  proposed,  whom  Charles  II  called 
"  an  unfair  preacher,  because  he  exhausted  every  subject, 
and  left  nothing  for  others  to  say  after  him,"  has  some- 
times carried  his  analytical  discussion  so  far  as  to  make  it 
wearisome  to  any  ordinary  congregation.  The  complete 
logical  analysis  of  a  subject,  dividing  and  subdividing, 
will  sometimes  be  useful  as  a  part  of  the  preparation  for 
preaching  on  it;    but  the  oi\torical   division  is   distinct 


THE    SEVERAL    PARTS     OF    A    SERMOX.       269 

from  this,  and  ofteD  very  different,  especially  as  to  sub- 
divisions.* 

As  regards  the  relation  of  the  divisions  to  each  other, 
they  must  be  distinct  and  symmetrical.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon for  unpractised  speakers  to  have  one  division  that 
really  includes  another,tand  very  common  to  see  one  that 
includes  some  part  of  Avhat  also  comes  under  another.  We 
are  sometimes  greatly  tempted,  in  treating  one  branch  of  a 
subject,  to  go  on  ^vith  some  closely  related  matter  which 
yet  properly  belongs  to  another  branch.  The  incongruity 
is  not  always  obvious,  and  requires  attention.  Sometimes, 
in  fact,  it  is  difficult  to  decide  where  such  or  such  an  idea 
more  properly  belongs ;  but  it  must  be  confined  to  one 
head,  or  fairly  divided  between  the  two,  so  that,  in  what- 
ever way,  the  heads  shall  be  kept  distinct.  Furthermore, 
ideas  are  frequently  set  forth  as  distinct  divisions  which 
are  not  sufiiciently  distinct  to  be  divided  at  all ;  and  ideas 
which  are  distinct,  will  be  so  stated  as  to  glide  into  each 
other,  without  any  clear  line  of  demarkation.  "  Words  the 
most  different,  do  not  always  convey  essentially  different 
ideas,  as  in  this  division  :  *  It  is  characteristic  of  Christian 
faith,  that  it  excites,  guides,  supports.*  To  prove  successively 
that  a  thing  is  contrary  to  good  sense  and  contrary  to  our 
own  interests,  is  to  condemn  ourselves  to  be  in  presence  of 
nothing  after  finishing  the  first  part."  t  Besides  being  dis' 
tinct,  the  divisions  should  be  symmetrical.     It  is  little  to 

*  The  author  once  i^ecoived,  as  a  hoiniletical  exercise,  the  sketch 
of  a  sermun  contaiuing  four  divisions,  but  with  subdivisions  and 
divisions  of  these  again  and  again,  till  the  whole  numbered  more 
than  a  hundred  and  twenty.  The  nnalysis  was  almost  faultless, 
but  it  would  have  made  an  intolerable  sermon. 

f  Thus  Cicero  (De  Inventione,  I,  23)  points  out  how  improper  it 
would  be  to  undertake  to  show  that  from  the  opposite  party's 
cupidity,  and  audacity,  and  avarice,  many  ills  had  befallen  thy 
Btate ;  because  avarice  is  really  one  kind  of  cupidity. 

X  Vinet,  p.  282. 
23* 


270   THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON. 

pay  that  they  must  not  be  incongruous,  though  preachers 
of  some  ability  do  at  times  throw  together  matters  which 
have  as  little  congruity  as  the  human  head,  a  horse's  neck. 
a  body  composed  of  parts  brought  from  all  directions  and 
covered  with  many  kinds  of  feathers,  and  the  whole  ending 
in  a  fish's  tail  —  according  to  the  w^ell-known  warning  of 
Horace."^  But  the  important  precept  is,  that  the  divisions 
must  all  sustain  the  same  kind  of  relation  to  the  subject 
proposed.  Nothing  is  more  common,  among  the  faults  of 
inexperienced  preachers,  than  to  see  three  divisions,  one 
of  which  is  not  co-ordinate  with  the  other  two,  but  only 
with  some  other  proposition  of  which  those  two  are  really 
subdivisions ;  some  of  the  divisions  are  branches  of  the 
tree,  and  others  are  but  branches  of  branches.  This  fault 
should  be  carefully  guarded  against.  In  some  respects,  the 
idea  of  symmetry  is  often  pushed  too  far.  Of  course  the 
subdivisions  of  any  one  division  should  all  sustain  to  it 
the  same  relation.  But  pains  are  often  taken  to  give  each 
division  the  same  number  of  subdivisions,  in  order  to  make 
the  plan  symmetrical.  Even  when  this  is  natural,  it  is 
very  apt  to  appear  artificial,  particularly  if  the  number  of 
divisions  and  subdivisions  be  considerable  ;  and  when  it  is 
really  artificial,  the  effect  is  not  good.  Pascal  compares 
such  matters  inserted  merely  for  the  sake  of  symmetry  to 
false  windows  in  a  building,  a  pooj  attempt  to  hide  inter- 
nal lack  of  symmetry,  and  which  offend  as  soon  as  we 
know  what  they  are.  Another  mistaken  notion  of  -sym- 
metry requires  that  each  division  and  sometimes  even  each 
subdivision  should  be  discussed  at  about  the  same  length. 
When  natural,  this  is  pleasing.  But  it  will  not  often  be 
natural.  A  mere  external  symmetry  is  far  less  important 
than  proportion  to  the  internal  relation  of  the  topics,  and 
to  the  specific  design  of  the  discourse.f 

*  Ars  Poetica,  1. 

•j  Comp.  above,  at  the  close  of  chap  1.     The  peculiarities,  as  to 


THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A    SERMON.      271 

The  different  principles  on  which  subjects  may  be  divided 
are  very  numerous,  and  no  brief  discussion  or  enumeration 
of  them  would  be  of  much  utility.*  One  may  learn  much, 
as  to  the  practical  management  of  division,  from  the  care- 
ful analysis  of  published  sermons.  The  inexperienced 
preacher  will  find  great  advantage  in  having  his  plans 
critically  examined  by  an  instructor,  or  by  some  judicious 
friend.  In  this  matter  a  man  w^ill  soon  learn  more  from 
having  pointed  out  to  him  the  faults  which  he  himself  has 
committed,  than  it  is  possible  to  teach  in  general  terms. 
The  study  of  Logic,  in  any  really  good  treatise,  will  also 
be  of  great  service,  in  this  as  in  many  other  respects. 

(4.)  The  order  of  the  divisions  will  be  controlled  not 
merely  by  logical,  but  also  by  practical  considerations. 
Even  w^here  instruction  and  conviction  are  especially  aimed 
at,  there  is  always  in  preaching  a  practical  effect  proposed  ; 
and  usually,  instruction  and  conviction  are  quite  subordi- 
nate to  the  object  of  impressing  the  feelings  and  determin- 
ing the  will.  As  to  instruction,  it  is  obviously  proper  that^ 
those  divisions  should  precede,  which  will  help  to  under- 
stand the  succeeding  ones ;  and  it  is  commonly  convenient 
that  negative  considerations  should  precede  the  positive. 
So  far  as  conviction  is  concerned,  a  sermon  should  arrange 
arguments  according  to  the  general  principles  which  regu- 
late the  order  of  arguments,  and  which  apply  here  not  less 
than  in  the  essay  or  treatise.f  And  in  respect  to  practical 
effect,  we  must  endeavor  clearly  to  discern  the  particular 
end  proposed,  and  then  must  consider  what  selection  and 
arrangement  of  topics  will  be  most  likely,  by  kindling 
the  imagination  and  warming  the  passions,  to  induce  the 

divisions,  of  subject-sermons,  text-sermons,  and  expository  ser- 
mons,will  be  discussed  below  in  chap.  3. 

*  Some  good  remarks  may  be  found  in  Hoppin,  p.  151  ;  Kidder, 
p.  201.      Comp.  below  on  subjectTsermons,  chap.  3,  |  1. 

f  See  on  order  of  arguments,  Part  I,  chap.  6,  §  4. 


272   THE  SEVERAL  PAHTS  OF  A  SERMON. 

hearers  to  resolve  and  to  act  as  we  desire.  For  tliis  pur- 
pose the  abstract  must  precede  the  concrete,  the  general 
precede  the  specific  or  particular,  and  in  general,  instruc- 
tion and  conviction  must  precede  appeal.  The  appeal, 
however,  may  either  come  in  mass  after  the  whole  body  of 
instruction  and  argument,  or  it  may  immediately  follow 
each  leading  thought  as  presented.  This  last  course,  to 
apply  as  we  go,  has  sometimes  considerable  advantages. 
The  successive  waves  of  emotion  may  thus  rise  higher  and 
higher  to  the  end.  And  besides,  while  thought  produces 
emotion,  it  is  also  true  that  emotion  reacts  upon  and 
quickens  thought,  so  that  the  impressive  application  of  one 
division  may  secure  for  the  next  a  closer  attention.  Yet 
the  interest  must  steadily  grow  as  we  advance,  or  the  effect 
will  be  bad ;  and  where  we  cannot  feel  sure  that  it  will 
thus  grow,  point  by  point,  then  application  had  better  be 
postponed  till  towards  the  close.* 

The  young  preacher  who  repeats  a  sermon  ought  to  con- 
sider whether  he  cannot  advantageously  rearrange  it,  or  at 
any  rate  improve  the  plan. 

id.)  The  statement  of  the  divisions  and  subdivisions,  like 
that  of  the  proposition,  ought  to  be  exact,  concise,  and  as 
far  as  possible,  suggestive,  and  attractive.  Without  strain- 
ing after  effect,  one  may  often  state  a  division  in  terms  so 
brief  and  striking,  that  the  hearer's  attention  will  be  at 
once  awakened.  It  is  well  that  the  several  divisions  (and 
so  with  the  several  subdivisions  of  each)  should  be  stated 
in  similar  forms  of  expression,  where  this  can  be  done 
without  artificiality.  Such  similarity  of  statement  brings 
out  the  symmetry  of  the  divisions,  rendering  them  clearer 
and  also  more  pleasing.  Some  German  preachers  occa- 
sionally throw  their  divisions  into  metre  and  rhyme,  or 
adopt  for  the  purpose  some  couplet  or  stanza  from  a  fa- 
miliar hymn. 

*  Comp.  on  Application,  Part  I,  chap.  8 


THE  SEVERAL  PaRTS  OF  A  SERMON.   273 

(6.)  Shall  the  divisions  be  announced  beforehand?  This 
was  once  almost  universal,  and  is  still  the  regular  practice 
of  many  preachers.  At  one  time  in  some  parts  of  Ger- 
many, the  plan  of  the  sermon  was  printed,  and  either  pub- 
lished in  the  newspaper  of  the  previous  week,  or  handed 
in  slips  to  the  congregation  as  they  entered  the  church.* 
To  make  a  minute  announcement  of  divisions  and  subdi- 
visions, and  repeatedly  recall  them  in  passing,  is  very 
appropriate  when  lecturing  to  a  class  on  some  difficult 
subject,  where  the  object  is  not  persuasion,  but  only 
instruction  and  conviction.  But  in  preaching,  rightly 
regarded,  these  are  commonly  subordinate  to  persuasion. 
Now  three  cases  may  be  noted,  in  which  it  is  desirable  to 
announce  the  divisions  at  the  outset,  (a)  When  the  train 
of  thought  is  difficult,  and  the  announcement  may  aid  in 
following  it.  Sometimes  this  would  but  increase  the  diffi- 
culty, the  hearer  finding  it  easier  to  comprehend  each 
division  by  itself,  as  it  is  presented.  But  in  other  cases 
the  divisions  when  placed  side  by  side  will  throw  light  on 
each  other,  (b)  When  it  is  particularly  desirable  that 
not  merely  the  practical  impression  should  be  permanent, 
but  that  the  successive  steps  in  the  exposition  or  argument 
should  be  remembered,  (c)  When  we  judge  that  the  an- 
nouncement would  awaken  interest  and  attention,  rather 
than  abate  them;  and  here  every  case  must  be  decided 
upon  its  own  merits.  Unless  one  of  these  three  condi- 
tions exist,  no  previous  announcement  should  be  made. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  there  are  many  different 
methods  of  announcing,  beginning  with  the  formal  state- 
ment of  numbered  divisions  (and  sometimes  of  subdivi- 
sions also),  and  extending  through  numerous  gradations  to 
the  perfectly  informal,  and  perhaps  very  slight  mention 
of  the  divisions  as  the  points  it  is  proposed  to  consider. 
Between  these  limits  there  may  be  devised  a  great  variety 

*  Hagenbach,  Horn.  s.  123. 


274   THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON. 

of  methods,  by  the  exercise  of  power  of  invention,  and  of 
judgment  and  good  taste.  Shedd  thinks  *  that,  as  a  gene- 
ral thing,  recapitulation  is  better  than  pre-announcement, 
as  being  more  intelligible,  more  impressive,  and  more  easily 
remembered.  In  many  cases,  this  is  true.  In  many  others, 
the  pre-announcement  is  best.  Sometimes,  it  is  even  well 
to  employ  both. 

To  announce  at  the  outset  the  subdivisions  also,  would 
be  desirable  only  in  very  peculiar  cases,  where  the  train 
of  thought  was  in  itself  very  important.  It  is,  however, 
more  frequently  proper,  after  stating  a  particular  division, 
then  to  announce  its  subdivisions,  or  rather  to  mention 
them  in  an  easy  and  informal  way. 

.  4.  The  transitions  from  one  part  of  a  discourse  to  the 
next  are  most  felicitous  when  least  noticeable.  The  ideal 
of  excellence  would  be  that  the  parts  should  fit  perfectly 
together,  "  like  well-cut  stones,  needing  no  cement,"  to  use 
Cicero's  image,  or  that  each  should  grow  out  of  the  pre- 
ceding, by  a  process  of  natural  development.  This  ideal 
can  seldom  be  realized ;  but  in  all  cases  transition  will  be 
easy  in  proportion  as  the  subject  proposed  has  been  thor- 
oughly studied,  and  the  thoughts  to  be  presented  have  been 
well  arranged.  No  good  transition  can  be  made  between 
topics  that  have  not  a  real  and  natural  relation,  such  as 
to  make  it  appropriate  that  they  should  stand  in  immediate 
succession.  When  therefore  we  find  the  transition  difficult, 
it  is  well  to  inquire  whether  the  arrangement  is  not  defec- 
tive. Often,  indeed,  the  difficulty  arises  from  the  fact  that 
we  are  attempting  to  work  in  some  idea  or  passage  which 
has  no  natural  place  in  the  train  of  thought.  Buffon  has 
remarked,  "  Those  who  fear  to  lose  isolated  thoughts,  and 
who  write  detached  passages  at  different  times,  never  com- 
bine them  without  forced  transitions."  f     And  the  difficulty 

*Hom.  p.  195. 

f  Quoted  by  Vinet,  p.  285.  See  also  Skinner,  Discussions  in 
Theol.,  p.  168. 


THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON.   275 

is  even  greater  with  scraps  gathered  from  reading.  These 
should  be  introduced  only  when  they  can  be  thoroughly 
incorporated  into  the  discourse.  Otherwise,  no  matter  how 
sensible,  striking  or  pleasing,  they  had  better  be  omitted ; 
if  really  so  good,  they  will  soon  find  their  place  somewhere 
else.  A  discourse  is  not  a  mere  conglomeration  or  accretion 
of  foreign  matters.  From  whatever  source  its  materials 
may  have  been  derived,  they  must  be  made  to  unite  and 
grow  together.  Like  sap  in  the  plant  or  blood  in  the  body, 
the  vital  current  of  thought  must  flow  through  the  whole 
discourse,  giving  it  animation,  flexibility,  strength. 

Still,  it  will  frequently  happen  that  the  practical  design 
of  a  sermon,  or  the  exigencies  of  preparation,  will  require 
us  to  bring  together  thoughts  between  which  there  is  not  a 
perfect  fit,  or  a  spontaneous  vital  connection.  It  may  then 
be  necessary  to  interpose  some  third  idea,  related  to  both, 
and  forming  an  easy  transition."''  Such  an  idea  must  not 
have  any  separate  prominence,  nor  in  fact  attract  to  itself 
any  attention  from  the  persons  addressed,  though  a  critical 
observer  would  perceive  that  it  is  appropriate  and  properly 
introduced.  In  most  cases  the  transition  can  be  effected 
by  a  single  brief  sentence.  To  manage  this  with  simplicity, 
grace  and  variety,  is  a  task  of  some  delicacy,  but  due 
attention  and  practice  will  enable  any  one  to  perform  it 
with  tolerable  success.  One  of  the  most  distinguished 
preachers  of  America  is  known  to  have  remarked,  that 
the  transitions,  the  articulations,  of  a  discourse,  give  the 
highest  proof  of  oratorical  skill.  If  under  articulation 
we  comprise  the  adjustment  of  successive  thoughts  to  each 
other,  this  would  naturally  include  arrangement,  and  taken 
with  this  breadth  of  meaning,  the  remark  is  unquestion- 
ably correct. 

But  whether  the  transition  be  in  itself  mediate  or  imme- 
diate, it  is  often  desirable  to  employ  some  form  of  expres 

*  Comp.  Vinet,  p.  317. 


276      THE    SEVERAL     PARTS    OF    A    SERMON. 

sion  which,  in  conjunction  with  the  natural  change  of  tone 
and  manner,  shall  cause  the  hearer  to  observe  that  we  are 
here  passing  to  another  thought.  This  is  sometimes  done 
by  numbering  the  divisions  and  subdivisions,  and  then 
introducing  each  by  a  mention  of  the  number,  which 
besides  the  formal  statement,  can  be  made  in  a  variety  of 
informal  ways.  And  without  numbering,  or  without  stat- 
ing the  numbers,  we  may  use  any  of  those  numerous  ex- 
pressions which  indicate  progress  from  point  to  point. 
Among  the  most  common  are  again,  in  addition,  besides, 
furthermore,  still  further,  moreover,  another  point,  in  the 
next  place,  and  not  only  this,  but  etc.,  on  the  other  hand, 
once  more,  finally,  etc.  etc.  *  But  let  not  the  inexperi- 
enced preacher  imagine  that  there  are  any  set  phrases 
which  propriety  requires  him  to  adopt.  Let  him  notice 
what  relation  exists  between  the  foregoing  and  following 
thoughts,  and  indicate  the  transition  by  any  appropriate 
and  simple  expression,  without  hunting  after  novelty,  and 
without  neglecting  variety. 

If  the  sermon  is  unusually  long,  the  transition  to  one  of 
its  later  divisions  may  in  some  simple  and  quiet  way 
acknowledge  the  fact,  perhaps  slightly  apologize  for  it ;  if 
any  particular  portion,  from  its  difficulty  or  its  importance, 
requires  special  attention,  this  also  may  be  indicated  in 
the  transition ;  and  in  rare  cases  a  word  may  be  thrown 
in  to  arouse  flagging  attention.t  The  propriety  of  all 
such  passing  remarks,  and  the  method  of  making  them, 
must  be  determined  by  good  sense  and  good  taste.  If  not 
well  managed,  they  are  much  worse  than  nothing. 

As  to  this  whole  matter  of  the  plan  of  discourse,  we 
may  rejoice  that  in  the  present  age,  and  especially  in  our 
country,  there  is  no  established  and  dominant  custom,  but 
a  good  degree  of  freedom.     The  preacher,  particularly  in 

*  Comp.  Ripley,  Sac.  Rhet.  p.  102. 
+  Comp.  Ripley,  p.  103. 


THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON.   277 

his  youth,  had  better  not  make  haste  to  conclude  that  he 
is  superior  to  general  experience,  but  should  study  and 
practise  different  methods,  following  mainly  those  which 
he  finds  best  suited  to  his  powers,  but  frequently  exercising 
himself  in  others,  so  as  to  let  no  one  method  become  a 
necessity  to  him,  so  as  to  broaden  and  vary  his  cultivation, 
and  to  adapt  himself  to  differences  of  taste  among  his 
hearers.  On  the  other  hand  he  need  not  be  always  follow- 
ing the  fashions  of  his  time,  but,  taking  due  account  of 
the  nature  and  design  of  pulpit  discourse,  should  give  free 
scope  to  his  individuality,  and  sometimes  strike  out  methods 
of  his  own,  observing  how  they  affect  him  and  his  hearers. 
He  should  be  neither  solicitous  to  appear  independent  and 
original,  nor  afraid  to  try  experiments,  under  the  control 
of  good  taste  and  devout  feeling.* 


§  3.      CONCLUSION. 

Preachers  seldom  neglect  to  prepare  some  introduction 
to  a  sermon,  but  very  often  neglect  the  conclusion  ;  and 
yet  the  latter  is  even  more  important  than  the  former. 
John  Bright,  one  of  the  foremost  political  orators  of  the 
present  age,  has  stated  that  however  little  preparation  he 
may  make  for  the  rest  of  a  speech,  he  always  carefully 
prepares  the  conclusion.  Lord  Brougham  said  that  the 
conclusion  to  his  celebrated  speech  belbre  the  House  of 
Lords  in  defence  of  Queen  Caroline  was  composed  twenty 
times  over,  at  least.  The  great  orators  of  Greece  and  Rome 
paid  much  attention  to  their  perorations,  seeming  to  feel 
that  this  was  the  final  struggle  which  must  decide  the  con- 
flict, and  gathering  up  all  their  powers  for  one  supreme 
effort.     But  how  often  we  find  it  otherwise,  especially  od 

*  Upon  the  different  methods  of   constructing  subject-sermons, 
text-sermors,  and  expository  sermons,  see  below,  chap.  3. 
24 


278      THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A    SERMON. 

the  part  of  preachers  who  extemporize.  The  beginning 
and  earlier  progress  of  the  sermon  show  good  preparation, 
and  do  well.  But  towards  the  close  the  preacher  no  longer 
knows  the  way ;  here  he  wanders  with  a  bewildered  look, 
there  he  struggles  and  flounders.  Another,  feeling  excited 
at  the  close,  launches  into  general  exhortation,  and  proceed- 
ing till  body  and  mind  are  exhausted,  ends  with  what  is 
scattering,  feeble,  flat.  The  conclusion  ought  to  have  moved 
like  a  river,  growing  in  volume  and  power,  but  instead  of 
that,  the  discourse  loses  itself  in  some  great  marsh,  or  ends 
like  the  emptying  of  a  pitcher,  with  a  few  poor  drops  and 
dregs. 

Let  us  lay  down  the  rule,  then,  that  the  conclusion 
should  be  carefully  jDrepared.  If  it  is  to  comprise  any 
impassioned  personal  appeal,  we  shall  often  find  occasion 
to  modify  it  in  delivery,  according  to  the  state  of  feeling 
which  has  then  been  reached  by  ourselves  and  the  hearers. 
But  one  can  usually  determine,  when  preparing,  precisely 
the  thoughts  with  which  the  sermon  ought  to  conclude, 
though  he  may  leave  the  mode  of  stating  them  to  be  con- 
trolled by  the  feelings  of  the  moment.  He  ought  in  every 
case  to  have  ready,  and  well  prepared,  something  that  will 
make  an  appropriate  and  effective  conclusion,  even  though 
leaving  himself  free,  if  the  moment  should  so  prompt,  to 
strike  in  a  different  direction,  or  rise  to  a  higher  level. 
Where  the  subject  will  naturally  lead  to  passionate  exhor- 
tation, we  can  almost  always  foresee  a  certain  range  within 
which  such  exhortation  must  be  restricted,  if  it  is  to  be 
kept  in  relation  to  the  subject,  and  can  commonly  fix  some 
point  beyond,  towards  which  this  emotional  expatiation 
shall  tend,  and  where  we  may  close  with  some  comprehen- 
sive statement  or  final  appeal.  The  diflSculty  thus  encoun- 
tered as  to  the  conclusion  is  only  a  higher  degree  of  that 
which  everywhere  presents  itself  in  the  best  forms  of  speak- 
ing,  and  which   we  must  learn   to   overcome,    viz.   how 


THE  SEVERAL  PAETS  OF  A  SERMON.   279 

shall  we  combine  the  most  thorough  possible  preparation 
with  the  largest  liberty  in  (leliver}\* 

One  element  in  the  conclusion  of  a  sermon  will  often  be 
recapitulation.  If  the  discourse  has  consisted  chiefly  of 
careful  explanation  or  labored  argument,  and  if  it  is  im- 
portant that  its  several  divisions  should  be  remembered, 
and  doubtful  whether  they  will  be,  then  the  divisions,  and 
occasionally  even  certain  subdivisions,  may  be  distinctly 
re-stated.  But  this  must  be  so  managed,  to  use  a  phrase 
of  Cicero's,  "  that  the  recollection  may  be  revived,  not  the 
speech  repeated."  Though  perhaps  anxious  at  the  moment 
to  enlarge  anew  upon  some  favorite  point,  we  must  confine 
recapitulation  to  its  proper  office.  In  most  sermons,  how- 
ever, we  do  not  care  to  reproduce  the  several  thoughts  and 
fix  them  separately  in  the  hearer's  mind,  but  rather  to 
gather  them  all  together,  and  concentrate  their  force  upon 
one  final  effort  of  conviction  or  persuasion.  In  such  cases 
it  is  not  well  to  make  any  formal  recapitulation,  but  in  a 
freer  way  to  recall  the  train  of  thought,  or  the  principal 
points  of  it,  sometimes  using  very  different  forms  of  state- 
ment. This  appears  to  be  what  Vinet  would  call  resume, 
as  distinct  from  recapitulation. f  For  properly  oratorical 
purposes,  it  is  commonly  much  to  be  preferred.  '  The  reca- 
pitulation, or  the  resume,  especially  the  latter,  may  some- 
times form  the  entire  conclusion ;  but  in  most  cases  it  only 
leads  to  the  conclusion  proper.  It  is  often  better,  particu- 
larly where  the  discourse  includes  many  points,  to  give 
some  recapitulation  before  reaching  the  conclusion,  usually 
when  passing  to  the  last  division. 

".-    The  conclusion  will,  for  the  most  part,  consist  of  appli- 
cation.    This  term,  as  we  have  already  seen,  is  popularly 

*  Comp.  on  the  different  methods  of  preparation  and  delivery 
Part  IV,  chap.  1. 
t  Vinet,  p.  323. 


280   THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON. 

used  to  embrace  a  variety  of  materials,^'  including  appli- 
cation proper,  suggestions  for  practical  guidance,  and  per- 
suasive appeal. 

(1.)  Application,  in  the  strict  sense,  is  that  in  which  we 
show  how  the  subject  applies  to  the  persons  addressed, 
what  practical  instructions  it  offers  them,  what  practical 
demands  it  makes  upon  them.  Sometimes  this  is  effected 
by  means  of  what  are  called  remarks,  meaning  certain 
noticeable  matters  belonging  to  or  connected  with  the  sub- 
ject, to  which  attention  is  now  especially  directed.  Ke- 
marks  in  concluding  a  sermon,  ought  always  to  be  of  a 
very  practical  character.  Whatever  truth  a  sermon  may 
present  to  the  mind,  it  should  not  end  without  aiming  to 
bring  about  some  practical  result,  some  corresponding 
determination  of  the  will,  state  of  the  affections,  or  course 
of  action.  If  this  be  true,  many  of  the  remarks  we  hear 
in  the  conclusion  of  sermons  are  inappropriate,  or  at  least 
scarcely  desirable,  for  they  often  consist  of  certain  thoughts 
loosely  connected  with  the  subject  discussed,  for  which  no 
place  was  found  in  the  aiscussion.  Such  conclusions  w^ould 
seem  to  be  among  the  most  unfortunate  that  can  be  con- 
trived, for  they  scatter  where  there  ought  to  be  concentra- 
tion, and  they  lead  the  hearer  carelessly  to  survey  the  subject 
from  a  distance,  when  he  ought  to  be  drawn  into  close  personal 
contact  with  it.f   If  such  disjointed  observations  are  really 

*  See  above,  Part  I,  chap.  8.  As  application  is  often  made  else- 
where than  in  the  conclusion,  sometimes,  indeed,  forming  a  large 
portion  of  the  sermon,  and  as  some  of  the  topics  usually  embraced 
under  it  demanded  considerable  explanation,  the  subject  was  con- 
sidered under  the  head  of  Materials,  and  that  chapter  should  be 
here  compared. 

f  Kidder  appears  to  justify  this  sort  of  thing,  when  he  says 
(Horn.  p.  223),  "Another  design  of  a  conclusion  is  to  express 
thoughts  whicn  do  not  belong  to  any  other  part  of  the  discourse. 
In  the  elaboration  of  a  plan,  disposition  usually  distributes  to  tlie 
conclusion  pertinent  and  important  matter  that  has  no  place  in 
either  the  exordium  or  the  argument." 


THE    SEVERAL     PARTS    OF    A    SERMON.       281 

iiii  porta:;,  and  yet  the  plan  of  the  discourse  was  not  fortu 
nate  enor./h  to  embrace  them,  it  would  be  better  to  throw 
them  in  just  at  the  close  of  the  discussion,  and  give  after- 
wards an  appropriate  conclusion.  When,  however,  remarks 
are  of  a  practical  character,  and  have  a  sufficiently  close 
relation  to  the  subject  and  to  each  other,  they  constitute  a 
good  conclusion  to  the  sermon. 

This  application  more  frequently  takes  the  form  of  m- 
ferences.  In  England  two  centuries  ago,  from  the  passion 
for  logical  analysis  in  preaching,*  it  was  common  to  make 
a  great  number  of  inferences  in  concluding,  "sometimes 
twelve,  sometimes  twenty,  and  sometimes  fifty.  These 
were  called  uses,  (1)  of  information — (2)  of  instruction  — 
(3)  of  examination  —  (4)  of  reproof — (5)  of  encourage- 
ment—  (6)  of  comfort  —  (7)  of  exhortation,  and  so  on."  "j* 
This  was  of  course  ruinous  to  all  properly  oratorical  effect. 
But  even  at  the  present  day,  the  same  tendency  to  think 
more  of  instruction  in  preaching  than  of  practical  impres- 
sion, which  leads  many  still  to  employ  much  formal  divi- 
sion and  subdivision,  likewise  leads,  in  some  quarters,  to  a 
great  fondness  for  closing  with  "  inferences."  This  form 
of  making  application  of  the  subject  ought  to  be  in  two 
directions  carefully  limited.  Nothing  should  be  presented 
as  an  inference  which  does  not  logically  and  directly  follow 
from  the  subject  discussed.  The  former  practice  of  greatly 
multiplying  so-called  inferences  has  led  to  a  certain  loose- 
ness in  the  homiletical  application  of  the  term,  which 
ought  to  be  avoided. I  The  other  limit  is,  that  no  infer- 
ences should  be  drawn  in  concluding  a  sermon  which  are 
not  of  practical  importance.  It  is  not  the  preacher's  busi- 
ness to  exhibit  all  the  matters  which  maybe  inferred  from 
his  discussion,  as  if  he  were  attempting  an  exercise  in  logic, 

*  Comp.  above,  ^2.  f  Robinson's  ed.  of  Claude,  II,  457. 

:j:  Comp.  a]-ove,  Part  I,  chap.  6,  ^  2,  On  deduction  from  established 
truths. 

24* 


282   THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON. 

but  to  draw  out  such  as  are  of  real  importance.  And 
observe  that  this  should  be  a  practical  importance.  The 
body  of  the  discourse  has  furnished  the  intellect  with 
instruction  and  argument ;  what  we  want  in  concluding 
is,  as  remarked  above,  something  which  appeals  to  the 
affections  and  the  will.*  In  the  body  of  the  discourse 
there  may,  of  course,  be  inference  of  truths  not  in  this 
sense  practical,  but  forming  a  part  of  the  argument. 
The  conclusion,  except  in  rare  cases,  ought  to  deal  only 
in  truths  having  a  directly  practical  bearing.  Shedd 
points  out  that  inferences  forming  a  conclusion  ought  to 
be  homogeneous  and  cumulative.  The  several  inferences, 
that  is  to  say,  ought  to  sustain  a  similar  relation  to  the 
subject,  so  as  to  blend  into  one  effect ;  and  the  successive 
inferences  ought  to  increase  in  weight,  heat,  and  life, 
so  as  to  make  the  greatest  impression  at  the  close.  They 
should  generally  be  brief.  Yet  sometimes  it  is  proper  to 
make  a  short  statement  of  some  doctrinal  principle  or 
abstract  truth,  and  then  occupy  the  discourse  mainly  with 
practical  inferences  from  it;  but  in  such  cases  they  belong 
to  the  body  of  the  discourse,  which  ends  either  with  the 
last  inference,  or  ^vith  some  separate  conclusion. 

Again,  this  application  is  often  best  presented  in  the 
form  of  lessons.  This  term  implies  tliat  the  practical 
teachings  of  the  subject  are  more  thoroughly  brought  out 
and  more  fully  applied  than  would  be  indicated  by  mere 
"  remarks,"  while  it  does  not  restrict  the  application  to 
those  teachings  which  appear  as  logical  "  inferences " 
from  the  propositions  established.  It  would  thus  seem  to 
have  considerable  advantages  over  the  other  forms.  Such 
"  lessons "  must,  of  course,  be  thoroughly  practical,  and 
must  not  be  too  formal,  nor  have  a  magisterial  air.  The 
preacher  is  not  a  dignitary,  speaking  ex  cathedra  to  his 

*  Comp.  Shedd,  p.  198-204,  a  very  instructive  discussion. 


THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON.   283 

inferiors.      He   had   better  speak,  in  general,  of  lessona 
which  ive  may  learn. 

Of  course  there  are  applications  which  it  would  not  be 
proper  to  designate  by  any  one  of  these  terms,  remarks, 
inferences,  or  lessons.  And  of  course  it  is  by  no  means 
necessary,  and  frequently  not  advisable,  to  use  these  some- 
what formal  phrases,  even  where  they  are  appropriate. 
The  preacher  must,  in  the  mode  of  presenting  applications, 
study  naturalness,  simplicity,  and  variety. 

(2.)  Another  subdivision  of  what  is  popularly  called  ap- 
plication, consists  of  suggestions  as  to  the  best  means  and 
methods  of  practically  performing  some  duty  which  the 
body  of  the  discourse  has  enjoined.  After  urging  the 
obligation  to  such  duties  as  family  or  secret  prayer,  or 
reading  the  Scriptures,  private  efforts  for  the  conversion  of 
individuals,  kindness  to  the  poor,  etc.,  it  is  extremely  ap- 
propriate to  end  with  practical  suggestions  as  to  the  way 
in  which  the  work  may  be  actually  done,  by  people  having 
nothing  extraordinary  in  their  character  or  circumstances 
—  done  regularly,  habitually,  and  wdth  good  results.  Many 
a  Christian  duty  seems  to  most  people  impracticable  for 
them;  and  the  most  effective  application  in  such  cases  is  to 
show  that  it  is  practicable.  Usually  this  should  not  be 
done  in  the  way  of  objurgation,  as  if  wishing  simply  to 
take  away  their  excuses  for  neglect,  but  with  a  sympa- 
thizing recognition  of  real  difficulties  which  are  "common 
to  man."  Here  again  we  see  that  explanations  and  sug- 
gestions, which  are  to  form  a  conclusion,  must  be  compara- 
tively brief.  If  it  is  deemed  proper  to  make  them  copious, 
they  ought  commonly  to  be  thrown  into  the  body  of  the 
discourse. 

(3.)  Application  includes  not  merely  a  statement  of  the 
practical  bearings  of  the  discourse  upon  the  hearers,  and 
instruction  as  to  the  actual  performance  of  duties  enjoined, 
but  it  also  includes,  and  often  especially  denotes,  ;)«r5i/asu'e 


2Si      THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON. 

appeal.  The  nature  and  means  of  persuasion  and  hortatory 
appeal  we  have  perhaps  sufficiently  considered  in  a  previous 
chapter.*  It  is  very  natural  that  conclusions  should  often 
consist  tDf  persuasion  and  entreaty.  Unless  the  whole  dis- 
course is  of  this  character,  such  matter  must,  if  given  any- 
v;here,  be  most  commonly  put  at  the  close.  And  such  is 
human  nature,  that  in  treating  the  great  majority  of  sub- 
jects we  find  it  desirable,  not  merely  to  enlighten  and  con- 
vince, but  also  to  urge  and  beseech. 

But  it  is  quite  wrong  to  suppose,  as  some  preachers  ap- 
pear to  do,  that  every  sermon  must  end  with  a  very  pathetic 
or  overwhelming  appeal.  It  is  not  unfrequently  best  to  end 
quietly,  yet  still  so  as  to  impress.  And  whatever  the  sub- 
ject might  require,  let  a  man  not  speak  in  an  emotional 
manner  unless  he  really  feels  it.  An  effort  to  work  oneself 
up  into  feeling,  because  it  is  desirable  at  this  point,  will 
usually  ftiil  ;  and  if  it  succeeds  as  to  the  preacher  himself, 
will  be  apt  to  make  anything  else  than  a  good  impression 
on  the  hearers.  If  an  impassioned  conclusion  was  pre- 
pared, and  the  speaker  now  finds  that  his  own  feelings 
and  those  of  the  audience  have  slowly  subsided  till  there 
is  no  good  prospect  of  exciting  them,  let  him  omit  the 
prepared  conclusion,  or  modify  its  tone*  so  as  to  attempt 
nothing  but  what  can  be  achieved.  Few  things  are  so 
painful  or  so  injurious  as  the  reaction  produced  by  pas- 
sionate words  which  are  not  felt  by  the  hearers,  nor  even 
by  the  speaker.  And  let  it  never  be  forgotten  that  we 
must  not  aim  to  excite  emotion  merely  for  its  own  sake,  as 
if  that  were  the  end  in  view,  but  to  make  it  a  means  of 
determining  the  will  and  stimulating  to  corresponding 
action.  Even  love  to  God  will  not  subsist  as  a  mere 
feeling. 

A  concluding  exhortation  ought,  as  a  rule,  to  be  specific, 
keeping  itself  in  relation  to  the  subject  which  has  been 

*  Tart  I,  chap   8. 


THE  SEVEEAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON.   285 

treated.  There  is  great  danger  that  a  fluent  and  fervid 
speaker  -will  wander  into  mere  general  appeals,  equally 
appropriate  to  almost  any  other  subject  or  occasion.  This 
may  be  sometimes  allowable,  but  a  more  specific  exhorta- 
tion would  almost  always  be  more  effective.  It  was  once 
very  common,  among  Baptists,  Methodists,  and  some  others, 
for  a  sermon  to  be  followed  by  an  exhortation  from  some 
other  minister,  or  from  some  private  Christian.  The  prac- 
tice is  now  generally  disused,  except  in  "  protracted  meet- 
ings," but  if  properly  managed,  may  be,  upon  occasion, 
quite  appropriate  and  really  useful.  It  would  be  an  ex- 
cellent thing  to  startle  some  of  our  congregations  out  of 
their  decorous  dulness,  by  an  unexpected  and  rousing 
exhortation.  But  such  addresses  should  not  break  away 
from  the  sermon,  nor  lose  themselves  in  vague  generalities. 
They  should  in  general  carry  the  subject,  or  some  branch 
of  it,  farther  in  the  same  direction.  If  no  train  of  thought 
presents  itself  which  would  be  of  this  character,  then  let 
the  speaker  take  some  thought  which,  though  not  included 
in  the  sermon,  wdll  harmonize  with  it  in  general  effect  — 
so  that  the  whole  service  may  impel  the  hearers  in  the 
same  direction.  One  who  undertakes  such  exhortation 
ought  not  merely  to  feel  moved  to.  speak,  but  by  all  means 
to  have  something  definite  in  his  mind  which  he  wishes 
to  say,  and  ought  especially  to  beware  of  wearying  the 
audience. 

When  the  sermon  has  been  one  of  warning  or  of  invita- 
tion, it  is  sometimes  natural  and  impressive  to  conclude 
with  something  of  the  opposite  tendency.  The  preacher 
must  judge  in  every  case,  whether  this  combination  will 
deepen  the  general  impression,  or  whether  the  two  will 
neutralize  each  other  in  the  hearer's  mind,  and  leave  him 
unaffected  by  either.  It  may  be  added  that  warnings,  and 
all  that  is  alarming  in  gospel  truth,  should  be  uttered  not 
as  if  we  delighted  in  denunciation,  but  with  especial  ten 


286   THE  SEVERAL  PARTS  OF  A  SERMON. 

(lerness,  showing  that  we  speak  in  the  faithfulness  of 
love. 

The  length  of  the  conclusion,  like  that  of  the  introduc- 
tion, is  dependent  on  circumstances,  and  no  rule  can  be 
laid  down.  But  there  is  great  danger  of  making  it  too 
long,  especially  in  hortatory  appeals.  The  feeling  of  the 
speaker  inclines  him  to  continue,  but  the  feelings  of  the 
hearers  cannot  be  long  kept  up  to  a  high  point.  If  the 
sermon  has  been  long,  the  conclusion  should  certainly  be 
brief,  save  in  very  peculiar  cases.  Sometimes  the  close  of 
the  last  division  really  brings  the  whole  train  of  thought 
to  an  end,  and  gives  it  a  practical  turn  ;  any  separate  con- 
clusion is  then  unnecessary,  and  commonly  undesirable. 
Sometimes  an  abrupt  conclusion  is  very  effective,  when 
well  managed,  with  good  taste  and  unaffected  solemnity. 
"  Excessive  length  is  a  common  fault  of  the  conclusion 
of  extemporaneous  preachers  and  writers ;  in  fact,  of  all 
who  do  not  govern  themselves  both  in  the  preparation  and 
delivery  of  sermons  by  well-defined  plans.  New  thoughts 
occur  to  them,  and  they  are  hitched  on  to  what  has  gone 
before.  What  is  worse,  sometimes  the  preacher  becomes 
conscious  that  he  has  failed  to  accomplish  the  object  of  his 
discourse,  or  to  awaken  the  degree  of  interest  he  ought  to 
have  excited,  and  he  struggles  on  in  the  vain  endeavor  to 
compensate  the  fault,  until  at  last  he  is  forced  to  terminate 
further  from  his  object  than  when  his  conclusion  began."* 
Most  of  all  is  it  unwise  to  give  indication  that  one  is  about 
to  conclude,  and  then  start  again,  or  keep  dragging  on. 

The  general  character  of  the  conclusion  ought  to  be  de- 
termined before  the  detailed  composition  (whether  written 
or  unwritten)  of  the  discourse  is  begun.  Then  the  devel- 
opment of  the  details  may  be  suitably  limited  and  directed 
by  the  use  which  it  is  proposed  to  make  of  the  whole  in 
concluding.     If  the  other  materials  have  been  provided 

♦  Kidder,  p.  229-30. 


THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A    SERMON.      287 

and  arranged,  and  no  conclusion  has  yet  suggested  itself— 
a  thing  which  will  not  often  happen— we  may  look  again 
over  the  train  of  thought  drawn  out,  asking  ourselves  dis^ 
tinctly  the  question  what  will  be  the  most  suitable  conclu- 
sion to  all  this.     Or  perhaps  a  renewed  examination  of  the 
text,  or  of  its  connection,  or  of  parallel  passages,  will  fur- 
nish something  suitable.     The  problem  is  not  to  find  some 
conclusion,  but  that  which  will  be  most  appropriate  and 
effective.     It  is  plain  that  the  conclusion  cannot  be  com- 
posed in  detail,  till  we  reach  it  in  composing  the  discourse. 
In  fact,  some  better  conclusion  than  was  originally  contem- 
plated may  have  presented  itself  in  the  course  of  composi- 
tion, which  it  is  proper  to  substitute.    And  the  same  thing 
may  happen  in  the  course  of  delivery.    The  great  requisite 
is,  that  the  body  of  the  discourse  and  the  conclusion  shall 
each  be  adapted  to  the  other;  and  this  may  be   accom- 
plished by  fixing  the  general  contents  and  design  of  the 
conclusion  when   laying   out  the  plan  of  the  discourse; 
and  then  allowing  the  style  and  tone  of  the  conclusion  to 
be  modified,  or  its  very  character  changed,  in  any  way  that 
may  have  been  suggested  in  the  progress  of  composition, 
or  of  delivery. 

The  final  words  ol  the  conclusion  may  sometimes  consist 
of  a  comprehensive  and  impressive  restatement  of  the  sub- 
ject which  has  been  discussed.  "  It  is  very  eflfective  when, 
in  our  final  appeal,  we  can  strongly  and  vividly  reproduce 
the  leading  idea  of  the  whole  discourse.  It  has  a  very 
great  effect  upon  our  hearers,  after  so  many  solid  proofs 
and  so  many  skilful  strokes  of  oratory  have  been  devoted 
to  it,  to  see  the  great  leading  truth,  the  parent  idea,  appear 
once  more  at  this  crowning  moment  in  all  the  force  of  its 
beautiful  simplicity,  in  all  the  strength  of  its  unity."  *  Or 
the  text  itself  may  be  the  last  words.  When  the  discourse 
has  been  developed  out  of  the  text,  and  has  exhibited  all 

*  Potter,  p.  228. 


288        DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS. 

its  wealth  of  meaning,  then  the  emphatic  repetition  of  the 
text  in  closing  will  impressively  sum  up  all  that  has  been 
said.  Or  we  may  end  with  another  passage  of  Scripture, 
or  with  part  of  a  hymn,  or  with  an  invocation  of  the  di- 
vine blessing.  This  last  is  sometimes  natural  and  impres- 
sive, but  should  never  become  a  regular  form.  Very  often, 
however,  the  general  contents  or  design  of  the  conclusion 
will  require  that  we  close  with  some  particular  thought. 
The  last  sentence,  of  whatever  it  may  consist,  ought  to  be 
appropriate  and  impressive,  but  its  style  ought  not  to  be 
elaborate  and  ambitious.  It  is  a  very  solemn  moment. 
Do  not  be  thinking  of  your  reputation,  good  brother,  but 
of  your  responsibility,  and  of  your  hearers'  salvation.* 


CHAPTER    III. 

DIFFERENT   SPECIES   OF   SERMONS. 

g  1     SuBJECT-SfiKMONs.      |  2.    Text-Sermons.      ^  3.    Expository 
Sermons. 

THERE  has  already  been  frequent  occasion  to  mention 
subject-sermons,  text-sermons,  and  expository  sermons. 
It  is  convenient  to  give  at  this  point  an  account  of  their 
respective  peculiarities,  with  practical  suggestions  as  to 
their  management. 

The  distinction  between  subject-sermons. and  text-sermons 
has  to  do  simply  with  the  plan  of  the  discourse,  especially 
with  the  source  of  its  divisions.  It  is  only  in  this  respect 
that  they  constitute  different  species,  and  yet  the  difference 

*  Besides  Shedd,  already  referred  to,  the  Conclusion  is  treated  at 
unusuuUength  and  iu  an  instructive  naanner  by  Iloppin,  p.  178-190. 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERM  DNS.      289 

IS  one  of  considerable  practical  importance.     The  phrases 
in  question — for  which  some  substitute  topical  and  textual 
sermons,  or  topical  and  textual  division  of  sermons  —  have 
not  been  generally  employed  with  great  precision  or  uni- 
formity.    A  very  obvious  application  of  them,  and  one 
which  can  be  consistently  carried  through,  would  be  as 
follows:  Subject-sermons  are  those  in  which  the  divisions 
are  derived  from  the  subject,  independently  of  the  text ; 
while  in  text-sermons,  the  divisions  are  taken  from  the 
text.     In  the  latter  case  as  well  as  in  the  former,  there 
may  be  a   definite  subject,  distinctly  and  even  formally 
stated ;  but  this  subject  is  not  divided  according  to  its  own 
nature,  but  only  such  divisions  are  made  as  are  presented 
by  the  text.     Sometimes  the  two  plans  may  coincide.     Be- 
ginning with  a  subject,  one  may  find  so  appropriate  a  text, 
that  the  logical  divisions  of  the  subject  will  all  be  contained 
in  the  text ;    or  beginning  with  a  text,  he  may  state  its 
subject  in  so  felicitous  a  form  of   proposition,  that   the 
several  divisions  presented  in  the  text  will  also  constitute 
a  complete  logical  division  of  the  proposition.     But  they 
will  not  often  thus  coincide,  and  the  fact  that  they  some- 
times do,  will  not  make  them  less  distinct  in  principle. 

§  1.      SUBJECT-SERMONS. 

In  subject-sermons,  then,  we  draw  from  the  text  a  certain 
subject,  usually  stating  it  distinctly  in  the  form  of  a  propo- 
sition,* and  then  the  text  has  no  further  part  in  the  ser- 
mon, but  the  subject  is  divided  and  treated  according  to  its 
own  nature,  just  as  it  would  be  if  not  derived  from  a  text. 

This  form  of  treatment  has  important  advantages.  It 
better  insures  unity,  which  is  indispensable  to  the  best 
eflfects  of  discourse.  It  trains  the  preacher's  mind  to  logical 
analysis,  and  few  kinds  of  power  are  so  valuable  to  him. 

*  Comp.  above,  chap.  2,  g  2. 
25 


290       DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS. 

It  is  more  convincing  and  pleasing  to  a  certain  order  of 
minds  in  tlie  audience,  especially  among  cultivated  people,; 
such  a  treatment  having  a  more  logical  character,  and  also 
a  more  manifest  completeness.  Besides,  there  will  often 
be  practical  occasion  for  thus  thoroughly  discussing  a 
subject.  The  wants  of  the  congregation  will  make  the 
preacher  wish  to  present  a  full  viev/  of  ?-ome  doctrine,  or 
some  topic  of  general  or  particular  morality,  and  not 
merely  the  special  aspects  of  it  which  one  text  or  another 
may  exhibit.  The  Scriptures  do  not  present  truth  in  a 
succession  of  logical  propositions,  any  more  than  the  objects 
of  nature  are  found  grouped  according  to  scientific  clas- 
sification. This  suits  the  design  of  the  Bible,  as  a  book 
to  be  read,  and  also  leads  to  a  rich  variety  in  textual 
preaching.  But  it  is  frequently  instructive  and  satisfac- 
tory to  discuss  some  collective  subject. 

It  is  usually  better  that  the  su^ect  should  be  not^gen- 
eral,  but  specific.  This,  as  we  have  heretofore  seen,*  not 
only  promotes  variety  in  successive  sermons,  but  really 
makes  each  subject  more  fruitful.  And  if  in  addition  to 
being  a  theme  specific  in  its  logical  character,  it  be  the 
specific  theme  of  the  text  from  which  it  is  drawn,  this 
removes,  in  part,  one  of  the  objections  to  subject-sermons, 
viz.  that  in  them  the  text  does  not  perform  so  important 
a  part  as  it  ought  to  do  in  preaching.  Too  often  the  text 
is  only  a  starting-point,  with  which  the  sermon  afterwards 
maintains,  not  only  no  formal,  but  no  vital  connection. 
Sometimes,  indeed,  it  is  made  simply  a  motto,  a  practice 
of  extrenaely  doubtful  propriety.  Of  course  a  text  which 
presents  a  specific  aspect  of  some  subject  may  he  lawfully 
used  as  suggesting  the  general  subject,  or  we  may  draw 
from  a  general  text  its  general  subject,  and  then  avowedly 
confine  ourselves  to  one  de])artment  of  it.  But  as  a  rule, 
it  is  greatly  better  that  the  subject  should  be  precisely 

*Part  I,  chap.  3,  §  1. 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS.       291 

tliat  which  the  text  most  naturally  presents,  and  -which 
most  thoroughly  exhausts  its  mcanini':.  A  good  example 
of  such  specific  subjects  is  found  in  llobcrt  Hall's  three 
sermons,  Reasons  for  a  judgment  to  come,  Character  of 
the  judgment  to  come.  Remembrance  in  youth  of  judg- 
ment to  come.*  And  a  text  is  in  each  case  taken  which 
is  supposed  to  present  the  specific  topic.  The  first  is 
Acts  24  :  25,  "  As  Paul  reasoned  of  righteousness,  tem- 
perance, and  judgment  to  come,"  though  this  is  probably  an 
unwarranted  interpretation,  as  the  word  properly  signifies 
'  discoursed  ; '  the  second  is  Heb.  6:2,"  Eternal  judg- 
ment;" and  the  third,  Eccl.  11  :  9,  "Rejoice,  O  young 

man,  in  thy  youth but  know  thou  that  for  all  these 

things  God  will  bring  thee  into  judgment."  Mr.  Hall's 
biographer  states  that  he  was  fond  of  thus  confining  him- 
self to  one  aspect  of  a  subject.  In  like  manner,  South 
has  a  number  of  distinct  sermons  on  Deliverance  from 
Temptation. 

The  subject  will  be  divided  according  to  its  own  nature, 
and  to  our  practical  design  in  treating  it.f  This  design 
will  usually  lead  us  either  to  explanation  (whether  by 
analysis  or  by  comparison),  to  proof,  or  to  application  of 
the  subject,  and  in  many  cases  will  require  some  combi- 
nation of  these.  The  practically  different  methods  of 
dividing  are  extremely  numerous  and  various,  and  here 
the  analytical  and  imaginative  powers  of  the  preacher 
may  be  freely  exercised.  The  formal  and  cumbrous  meth- 
ods given  in  the  "Topics"  of  ancient  writers,  and  applied 
to  preaching  by  Claude,  are  now  generally  disregarded. 
Indeed,  Cicero  himself,  who  abridged  Aristotle's  treatise 
on  Topics,  has  elsewhere,^  after  giving  a  few  practical 

*  Works,  IV,  304. 

f  The  character,  number,  order,  etc.  of  divisions  have  been  dis- 
cussed above,  chap.  2,  §  2,  3. 
JDelnven  .  I,  23. 


292       DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS. 

hints  as  to  ihi  divisions  of  a  discourse,  spoken  as  fallows : 
"  There  are  also  other  precepts  for  division,  which  are  of 
but  little  use  in  oratory ;  they  are  employed  in  philosophy, 
and  I  have  transferred  such  of  them  as  seemed  to  be  suit- 
able." This  distinction  between  logical  analysis  and  ora- 
torical division  cannot  be  too  earnestly  insisted  on.  Little 
can  be  taught  with  respect  to  dividing  a  subject  save  by 
examples,  and  these  can  be  most  profitably  studied  by  a 
critical  analysis  of  published  sermons,  and  a  repeated 
and  careful  inspection  of  the  plans  we  have  ourselves 
devised.* 

Sometimes   no   complete   discussion   of   the   subject   is 

*  For  this  purpose,  the  best  of  the  old  English  divines  are  Barrow 
and  South.  Tillotson's  plans  appear  more  simple,  and  thus  pref- 
erable, but  they  are  often  quite  defective.  Of  the  great  French 
preachers,  Saurin  is  better  in  this  respect  than  even  Massillon. 
Subject-sermons  in  a  strict  sense  are  especially  frequent  among 
Presbyterian  preachers ;  and  probably  no  sermons  in  existence 
present  a  larger  number  of  excellent  models  of  this  kind,  than 
those  of  Samuel  Davies,  If  the  study  of  one  of  these  older  preach- 
ers should  be  tending  to  make  one  too  formal  for  the  taste  of  the 
present  age,  he  can  correct  the  tendency  by  reading  Liddon's  Uni- 
versity Sermons,  or  R.  Fuller's  Sermons,  where  he  will  find  plans, 
both  topical  and  textual,  which  are  distinct  and  clear  without  being 
obtrusive  or  minute.  But  let  it  not  be  imagined  that  the  greatest 
preachers  are  faultless  in  their  plans,  or  even  uniformly  good. 
They  often  prepared  hastily,  or  their  minds  became  possessed  by 
a  certain  scheme  of  thought  so  that  they  did  not  perceive  its 
faults,  or  could  not  see  how  to  correct  them.  Andrew  Fuller 
usually  divides  naturally  and  well.  But  his  famous  sermon  on 
Walking  by  Faith  (Works,  Vol.  I),  though  the  leading  division  is 
simple  enough  —  the  nature  and  the  importance  of  walking  by  faith 
—  is  in  its  details  grievously  loose-jointed  and  awkward.  In  fact, 
it  was  suggested  by  an  incident  duiing  his  ride  to  the  place  of 
preaching.  A  rush  of  good  thoughts  may  come  suddenly,  as  in  that 
Qase,  but  very  seldom  ir^  a  good  arrangement.  It  has  been  already 
remarked  that  Spurgeon  often  gives  excellent  plans;  and  he  has 
nany  subject-sermons,  especially  in  his  earlier  volumes. 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SEKMONS.       293 

attempted,  but  we  have  only  a  series  of  remarks  upon  it. 
Of  course  this  is  not  often  to  be  commended.'*' 


§  2.  Text-ser:mons. 

These  ought  to  be  governed  by  the  same  general  prin- 
ciples as  subject-sermons.  They  must  ahvay?  have  a  plan, 
and  commonly  divisions ;  and  the  principles  laid  down  as 
to  divisions  in  the  foregoing  chapter  apply,  in  general,  to 
text-sermons  as  well  as  others.  Text-sermons  include  two 
distinct  varieties,  those  which  present  a  single  subject,  and 
those  which  discuss  several  subjects. 

1.  A  single  subject  is  drawn  from  the  text,  and  stated, 
whether  formally  or  intormally,  and  then  is  discussed 
under  such  divisions  as  the  text  furnishes.  We  have  seen 
that  this  may  sometimes  coinciile  with  a  complete  logical 
division  of  the  subject  itself,  but  in  those  rare  cases  it 
would  still  be  called  a  text-sermon,  if  the  divisions  were 
actually  derived  from  a  contemplation  of  the  text.  In 
general,  such  plans  are  quite  different  from  those  which  a 
logical  analysis  of  the  subject  would  suggest.  Text-ser- 
mons of  this  sort  are  by  some  writers  quite  confounded 
with  subject-sermons,  because  in  both  cases  there  is  a 
definite  subject.     Others  call  them  textual-topical. 

The  divisions  thus  drawn  from  the  text,  while  not  com- 
monly forming  a  complete  analysis  of  the  subject  in  itself 
considered,  must  yet  be  so  related  to  the  subject  and  to 
each  other,  that  they  together  form  a  structure,  a  sym« 
metrical  whole.  Otherwise  the  discourse  is  felt  to  be 
incomplete  and  fragmentary. 

*  It  is  not  deemed  necessary  to  say  more  upon  subject-sermons, 
because  all  that  is  said  in  chap.  2  of  divisions  applies  directly  to 
them.  A  preacher  who  shrinks  from  preaching  sermons  of  this 
sort  should  constrain  himself  to  make  them,  at  least  soiaewhat  fre- 
quently, for  the  sake  of  his  men'al  discipline,  and  of  di  e  variety. 
25* 


294        DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS. 

A  well-constructed  text-sermon  of  this  kiiid  lias  most 
of  the  advantages  possessed  by  subject-sermons,  and  thi 
great  additional  advantage  that  it  is  much  more  inti- 
mately in  contact  with  the  text,  drawing  from  it  not  only 
the  subject  treated  but  all  the  leading  thoughts  of  the 
treatment.  This  method,  accordingly,  is  very  largely 
adopted.  It  gives  ample  opportunity  for  variety,  fresh- 
ness, originality.  "  A  tact  is  needed  in  the  preacher,  to 
discover  tlie  hidden  skeleton.  This  tact  will  be  acquired 
gradually  and  surely,  by  every  one  who  carefully  culti- 
vates himself  in  all  homiletic  respects.  Like  all  nice 
discernment,  it  comes  imperceptibly  in  the  course  of  train- 
ing and  discipline,  and  therefore  no  single  and  particular 
rule  for  its  acquisition  can  be  laid  down.  It  must  be 
acquired,  however,  or  the  fundamental  talent  for  textual 
sermonizing  will  be  wanting.  Moreover,  this  tact  should 
be  judicious.  It  is  possible  to  find  more  meaning  in  a 
text  than  it  really  contains This  talent  for  de- 
tecting the  significance  of  Scripture,  must  be  confined  to 
the  gist  of  it  —  to  the  evident  and  complete  substance  of 
it."*  The  German  preachers,  who  have  to  preach  many 
times  in  successive  years  upon  the  same  passage,  often 
show  great  ingenuity  in  striking  out  new  plans  for  the 
same  text,  plans  which  shall  make  a  complete  section  of 
the  whole  passage,  but  in  a  new  direction.  "Take,  for 
example,  the  history  of  Peter's  denial.  I  can  set  out 
either  from  the  fact  of  the  denial  itself,  considering  it-  as 
to  its  causes,  its  consequences,  etc. ;  or  from  the  danger 
into  which  one  gets  who  warms  himself  with  the  world ; 
or  from  the  thought  that  in  this  world  everything  helps 
when  a  disciple  is  to  be  brought  to  fall ;  or  from  the 
repentance  of  Peter,  which  presupposes  as  well  love,  as 
weakness  of  love ;  or  I  can  set  forth  the  power  of  the  love 
of  Jesus  in  his  look  at  Peter,  a)  how  it  humbles  him,  bet- 

*  Shedd,  p.  152. 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS.       295 

ter  than  law  and  penalty  could  do,  b)  how  it  makes  a  new 
man  of  him.  In  all  five  sermons  the  whole  of  the  text 
would  have  place,  but  every  time  in  a  different  light. "  * 
"One  of  our  Lord's  miracles  of  healing  may  be  consid- 
ered either  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Divine  grace 
glorifying  itself  in  this  history,  in  which  case  Christ's 
mode  of  action  is  made  to  illustrate  that  of  God  (for 
example,  he  delays,  indeed,  with  his  help,  but  at  last  he 
does  help)  ;  or  the  history  may  be  chiefly  considered  from 
the  ethical  stand-point,  and  then  Christ  is  the  example 
according  to  Avhich  we  are  to  act  in  similar  cases;  or 
finally,  we  consider  the  conduct  of  the  persons  them- 
selves on  whom  the  healing  is  performed,  who  are  set 
before  us  as  an  example  of  faith  (for  example,  the  centu- 
rion of  Capernaum)."  f  Among  English  preachers,  Mel- 
vill  is  famous  for  the  ingenuity  with  which  he  develops  a 
rich  meaning  from  passages  which  to  most  persons  would 
suggest  nothing. 

Here,  as  in  the  case  of  subject-sermons,  we  hear  some- 
times merely  a  series  of  "observations"  or  "remarks" 
upon  the  subject,  which  could  hardly  be  called  divisions 
of  it.  The  following  example  is  from  Beddome  :  Acts  9 :  4, 
"Saul,  Saul,  why  persecutest  thou  me?"  1.  It  is  the 
general  character  of  unconverted  men  to  be  of  a  perse- 
cuting spirit.  2.  Christ  has  his  eye  upon  persecutors. 
3.  The  injury  done  to  Christ's  people,  Christ  considers  as 
done  to  himself.  4.  The  calls  of  Christ  are  particular.^ 
The  fourth  might  be  omitted.  Such  remarks  suggested 
by  the   text  would   seem   a   more   satisfactory  treatment 

■5^  Palmer,  Horn.  s.  378. 

t  Ilagenbach,  s.  120.  Comp.  the  plans  of  Krummacher,  in  his 
David,  and  the  sermons  on  the  Temptation  of  Christ  by  Krum- 
macher and  by  Monod,  in  Fish's  "Select  Discourses  from  the 
French  and  German." 

X  Quoted  by  Shedd,  p.  150. 


296       DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS. 

than  topical  remarks,  but  one  should  not  very  often  allow 
himself  to  construct  sermons  in  so  loose  a  fashion. 

The  preacher  must  exercise  his  judgment  with  reference 
to  every  particular  discourse,  as  to  whether  it  is  better  to 
make  a  textual  division  of  the  subject,  or  to  treat  the  sub- 
ject independently,  according  to  its  ov/n  nature.* 

2.  In  other  texi-st'rnioii«;,  there  is  not  one  definite  and 
comprehensive  subjx't,  but  several  topics  presented  by  the 
text  are  successively  treated.  These,  though  they  do  not 
admit  of  being  combined  into  one,  ought  to  have  such  a 
mutual  relation  as  to  give  the  discourse  unity.  The  same 
sentence  of  Scripture  might  suggest  several  entirely  dis- 
tinct topics,  and  a  sermon  upon  these  would  be  really 
several  sermons  in  succession.  A  discourse  that  has  not 
unity,  both  offends  taste  and  lacks  power  —  in  fact,  is  not 
a  discourse  at  all.  The  unity,  however,  may  be  that  of 
subject  or  of  person  or  oi'  piace,  provided  in  the  latter 
cases  there  be  also  some  internal  connection,  so  that  all 
may  blend  in  the  general  effect  of  the  discourse.  Thus 
topics  apparently  so  diverse  as  suicide,  ingratitude,  avarice 
and  remorse,  might  all  be  treated  in  a  sermon  upon  Judas, 
because  they  not  only  pertain  to  the  one  person,  but  were 
in  his  case  intimately  connected,  as  will  be  apparent  from 
stating  them  in  a  different  order,  avarice,  ingratitude,  re- 
morse, suicide.  After  pointing  out  that  in  him  they  were 
thus  connected,  one  might  even  treat  of  them  in  some  other 
order,  if  oratorically  more  convenient,  and  the  topics 
though  separate,  would  at  least  seem  tied  together  into  a 
kind  of  unity.  Such  an  example  ^hows  that  it  is  allow- 
able to  go  quite  far  in  this  direction;  but  as  a  rule,  we 
ought  to  have  as  close  an   internal  relation   among  the 

*  Some  prcaclicrs,  for  example  South,  are  very  fond  of  sermons 
■which  draw  some  divisions  directly  from  the  text,  but  others  from 
the  nature  of  the  subject.  This  might  seem  an  incongruous  mix- 
ture, but  is  often  well-managed  and  effective. 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMuNS.       297 

topics  of  the  discourse  as  i^ossible.  It  is  the  great  fault 
of  this  variety  of  text-sermons  that  they  are  apt  to  be 
desultory  and  rambling,  to  resemble  the  scattering  fire  of 
irregular  soldiers,  rather  than  the  systematic  and  concen- 
trated discharge  of  a  disciplined  body.  We  avoid  this 
fault  by  refusing  to  include  in  the  sermon  any  topic  sug- 
gested by  the  text  which  will  not  take  its  place  in  a  con- 
nected series,  though  the  topic  in  itself  might  be  interest- 
ing and  instructive. 

In  both  these  varieties,  especially  in  the  second,  the 
divisions  may  sometimes  be  stated  in  the  very  words  of 
the  text.  Tiius,  TJlg  young  convert  commended  to  God, 
JuDE  24.  1.  That  is  able  to  keep  you  from  falling ;  2. 
And  to  present  you,  (1)  faultless,  (2)  before  the  presence 
of  his  glory,  (3)  with  exceeding  joy.  Gal.  5  :  6,  What  it 
is  that  in  Christ  Jesus  avails.  1.  Neither  circumcision  nor 
uncircumcision.  2.  But  (1)  faith,  (2)  which  worketh,  (3) 
by  love.  The  order  of  the  clauses  may  be  varied,  if 
deemed  oratorically  more  suitable.  Luke  24:  43.  1.  Thou 
shalt  be  in  Paradise.  2.  Thou  shalt  be  with  me  in  Para- 
dise. 3.  To-day  thou  shalt  be  with  me  in  Paradise.* 
"When  one  thus  takes  up  the  successive  words  or 
clauses  of  a  text,  and  "  enlarges  "  upon  them,  the  process 
closely  resembles  musical  "  variations "  upon  a  familiar 
tune,  possessing  similar  advantages,  and  being  liable  to  the 
same  faults.  It  is  often  so  managed  as  to  be  wearisome, 
what  Schleiermacher  called  spelling  the  text ;  sometimes  it  is 
offensive,  as  when  a  passage  is  so  dissected  as  to  destroy  the 
very  life  of  it.  But  when  the  text  is  happily  chosen,  and 
the  treatment,  while  natural,  is  fresh, 'instructive  and  ani- 
mated, with  a  manifest  connection  in  the  topics,  and  a  sus- 

*  The  plan  often  pursued  with  the  words,  *'  Why  will  ye  die  ?  " 
viz.  to  emphasize  each  word  in  succession,  is  forbidden  by  the  fact 
that  in  the  original  neither  '  will '  nor  *ye'  is  separately  expressed, 
eo  that  they  cannot  be  taken  as  in  any  sense  emphatic. 


298       DIFFEEENT    SPECIES    OF    SEKMONS. 

tained  oratorical  progress  to  the  end,  such  a  sermon  may  be 
highly  effective.  The  people  love  to  have  their  minds  kept 
in  close  contact  with  the  text,  if  it  is  done  in  an  interesting 
and  impressive  way. 

Or  the  divisions  may  be  stated  in  different  terms,  though 
following  the  order  of  the  text ;  or  both  in  different  terms 
and  in  a  diii'erent  order,  if  this  would  give  a  more  oratori- 
cal arrangement.  The  statement  must  commonly  be  thus 
varied,  in  text-sermons  upon  a  single  definite  subject ;  and 
much  will  depend  upon  the  skill  with  which  the  divisions 
are  drawn  from  the  text  and  enunciated.  Ezek.  11 :  19,  20, 
"  And  I  will  give  them  one  heart,"  etc.  Genuine  Religion, 
developed  in  four  particulars.  I.  Its  author.  II.  The 
disposition  it  produces.  III.  The  obedience  it  demands. 
IV.  The  blessedness  it  insures.*  Psalm  73  :  24,  26.  God 
is  the  pious  man's  all  in  all.  I.  His  guide  through  life. 
II.  His  support  in  death.  III.  -His  portion  forever.  Some- 
times very  little  departure  from  the  words  of  the  text  is 
necessary.  Rom.  5:1,  2.  The  believer's  happy  state.  I. 
He  has  peace  with  God.  II.  He  stands  (i.  e.  stands  fast) 
in  the  grace  of  God.  III.  He  exults  in  hope  of  the  glory 
of  God. 

It  often  happens  tiiat  ihe  thoughts  of  a  text  can  be  very 
thoroughly  and  neatly  drawn  out  by  a  series  of  questions, 
the  answers  to  these  forming  the  divisions  of  the  sermon. 
Examples  of  this  are  familiar. 

In  treating  the  details  of  a  text-sermon,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  confine  ourselves  strictly  to  views  presented  by  the 
•  text.  Any  one  of  the  topics  may  be  developed  and  ap- 
plied according  to  its  own  nature,  or  according  to  the  spe- 
cific design  of  the  sermon.  Yet  it  is  always  pleasing, 
when  eflfected  without  artificiality,  to  see  all  the  lines  of 
development  kept  within  the  limits  of  the  text. 

*  Jay,  quoted  by  Kidder,  p.  206.  Jay  is  particularly  fond  of  this 
ppecies  of  sermons,  and  often  felicitous  in  his  plana. 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS.       299 

§  3.      EXPOSITORY  SERMONS. 

The  name  of  this  species  of  sermons  is  derived  from  a 
peculiarity  in  their  materials,  viz.  the  fact  that  they  are 
mainly  occupied  Avith  exposition.  But  their  homiletical 
peculiarities  belong  to  the  matter  of  construction,  to  that 
oratorical  arrangement  and  adaptation  which  should  dis- 
tinguish an  expository  sermon  from  a  commentary  or  an 
exegetical  essay.  The  present,  therefore,  seems  to  be  the 
appropriate  place  for  discussing  this  important  variety  of 
sermons.* 

Almost  every  preacher  one  meets,  if  asked  whether  he 
often  makes  expository  discourses,  will  answer,  "  No  ;  I 
have  long  believed  there  ought  to  be  more  preaching  of 
that  kind,  but  the  attempts  I  formerly  made  in  that 
direction  were  quite  unsuccessful,  and  it  seems  I  have  no 
talent  for  it."  But  how  few  have  ever  fairly  tried  to 
develop  such  a  talent.  Men  labor  for  years  to  acquire  the 
power  of  producing  a  good  topical  sermon.  All  their 
rhetorical  training,  and  all  their  practice,  is  directed  to 
that  end.  Then  they  try  the  experiment  of  expository 
preaching,  which  requires  a  different  kind  of  practice,  and 
perhaps  even  a  different  method  of  studying  the  Scriptures, 
and  wonder  that  their  first  attempts  prove  a  comparative 
failure.  This  is  as  unreasonable  as  the  course  of  those  who, 
after  training  themselves  to  read  sermons,  make  a  timid 
and  ill-prepared  effort  to  preach  without  writing,  and  infer 

*  This  discussion  is  in  the  main  identical  with  an  article  in  the 
Baptist  Quarterly  for  Jan.  1869.  It  may  be  allowable  to  embrace 
the  opportunity  for  remarking,  that  every  minister  ought  to  take 
at  least  one  religious  Quarterly,  and  if  but  one,  of  course  that  of 
his  own  denomination.  To  read  regularly  for  several  years  the 
fresh,  vigorous  and  instructive  articles  of  such  a  Review  as  that 
mentioned,  will  greatly  aid  the  minister  in  getting  into  the  current 
of  contemporary  thought,  and  in  the  meantime  will  supply  not  a 
little  of  good  material  for  preaching. 


300       DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS. 

from  the  almost  inevitable  failure  that  they  have  no  talent 
for  extemporizing. 

1.  It  is  not  thouglit  necessary  to  discuss  at  any  length 
the  advantai^xs  aiiJ  tliMidvantages  of  expository  preaching. 
The  former  are  to  some  extent  obvious  and  generally 
recognized,  and  they  have  been  admirably  presented  by 
Alexander,  in  his  Thoughts  on  Preaching/*"  As  stated  by 
him,  they  are  as  follows : 

(1.)  This  method  bettor  corresponds  with  the  very  idea 
and  design  of  nii-i'*];!!.--.  i  2.)  It  is  the  primitive  and  an 
cient  meiho<i.  ■.:;.)  it.  in-urvs  a  belter  knowledge  of  the 
ScrJjHure.T:,  on  the  part  oi'  ]:>reachGr  and  hearers  —  and 
of  tlie  Scriptures  in  tlieir  connection.  (4.)  It  causes  ser- 
mons to  contain  more  of  pure  Scripiure  Truths,  and  scrip- 
tural modes  of  viewi-ig  things.  (5.)  It  gives  occasion  for 
remarking  on  many  passages  of  tlie  Bible  vrhich  otherwise 
might  never  enter  into  one's  sermons;  and  for  giving  im- 
portant practical  hints  and  admonitions  which  might  seem 
to  some  hearers  offensively  personal  if  introduced  into  a 
topical  discussion,  but  which  are  here  naturally  suggested 
by  the  passage  in  hand.  (8.)  And  it  greatly  diminishes 
the  temptation  to  misinterpret  texts  by  excessive  allegoriz- 
ing, by  "  accommodation,"  etc. ;  for  men  are  often  driven 
into  such  misinterpretation  by  the  difficulty  of  finding  for 
every  sermon  a  short  passage  which  will  legitimately  afford 
the  requisite  amount  of  material. f 

It  might  be  more  desirable  to  discuss  the  objections  to 
this  method,  for  these  often  appear  more  serious  than  they 
really  are.  There  is,  in  many  quarters,  a  popular  prejudice 
against  expository  preaching,  arising  from  the  fact  that  it 
is  so  often  badly  managed,  and  from  the  notion  that  it  is  a 
labor-saving  contrivance.     On  rainy  Sundays,  or  on  week- 

*  Page  272-313. 

t  On  the  advantages  of  expository  preaching,  compare  Wayland, 
Ministry  of  the  Gospel,  p.  83-6. 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS.       301 

nights,  the  preacher  who  has  no  sermon  prepared,  or  ^vishes 
to  save  his  elaborate  preparation  for  a  more  auspicious 
occasion,  Avill  frequently  undertake  to  "  read  a  Tia^.^nge  of 
Scripture,  and  make  a  few  remarks ;  "  feeling  that  this 
enterprise  is  attended  by  no  risk,  because,  as  some  quaint 
old  preacher  expressed  it,  if  he  is  "persecuted  in  one  verse, ! 
he  can  flee  to  another."  Hence  the  people  rather  natu- 
rally conclude  that  whenever  one  takes  a  long  text,  it  is 
an  expedient  to  dispense  with  labor.  Besides  this  preju- 
dice against  the  method,  which  a  judicious  and  laborious 
preacher  can  soon  overcome,  it  has  inherent  disadvantages. 
Our  people,  it  is  to  be  regretted,  seldom  follow  that  excel- 
lent Scottish  fashion,  of  keeping  a  Bible  in  hand  during 
the  sermon;  and  so  they  find  it  hard  to  remember  the 
general  drift  and  connection  of  the  lone:  text,  i;?  tliey  are 
accustomed  to  do  Avith  a  short  one.  This  dithculty  one 
must  bear  in  mind,  seeking  to  overcome  it  as  far  as  possi- 
ble. Some  persons,  too,  in  our  extremely  restless  age, 
object  to  continuous  exposition  on  the  ground  that  it  lacks 
variety ;  they  grow  tired  of  hearing  the  preacher,  Sunday 
after  Sunday,  announce  the  same  book  and  perhaps  the 
same  chapter.  Others  really  care  so  little  about  the  Bible 
that  they  take  no  interest  in  explanations  of  it ;  they  w^ish 
the  preacher  to  make  his  text  merely  a  point  of  departure, 
and  to  give  them  *'  something  fresh."  Others  object  that 
the  expository  sermon  cannot  present  those  connected 
arguments  in  which  the  human  mind  so  greatly  delights ; 
but  it  may  trace  and  unfold  tlie  argument  of  an  inspired 
writer,  which  ought  to  be  more  interesting  than  one  con- 
structed by  the  preacher  himself  If  it  be  still  further 
objected  that  a  discourse  which  is  mainly  or  largely  occu- 
pied with  explanation  of  the  text,  can  leave  but  little  room 
for  application,  we  may  answer  that  the  impressiveness  of 
an  application  depends  very  largely  upon  the  interest  which 
the  hearers  have  been  previously  brought  to  feel  in  the 
26 


302       DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS. 

subject  applied;  and  that  a  brief,  and  even  unexpected 
application  or  appeal  is  often  more  impressive  than  one 
which  gives  notice,  and  throws  men  on  tlie  defensive. 

Shedd  takes  the  ground  '•'  that  "  there  is  somewhat  less 
call  for  expository  preaching  than  there  was  before  the 
establishment  of  Sabbath  schools  and  Bible  classes."  He 
adds,  however,  that  "  it  is  the  duty  of  the  preacher,  occa- 
sionally, to  lay  out  his  best  strength  in  the  production  of 
an  elaborate  expository  sermon,  which  shall  not  only  do 
the  ordinary  work  of  a  sermon,  which  shall  not  only 
instruct,  awaken,  and  move,  but  which  shall  also  serve  as 
a  sort  of  guide  and  model  for  the  teacher  of  the  Sabbath 
school  and  the  Bible  class."  But  it  is  worthy  of  inquiry 
whether  the  Sunday-school  teaching  does  not  actually  pre- 
pare people  to  receive  expository  preaching  with  higher 
appreciation  and  profit.  The  great  difficulty  in  the  way 
of  making  it  effective  is  not  knowledge  of  Scripture  but 
ignorance  of  it.  One  sometimes  fancies  he  could  point 
out,  after  preaching  to  a  congregation  of  strangers,  those 
who  are  engaged  in  the  regular  study  of  the  Bible,  from 
the  greater  interest  with  which  they  listened  to  any  expla- 
nations of  Scripture  that  may  have  occurred  in  the  ser- 
mon. Robert  Hall  found  his  regular  Sunday  morning 
expository  sermon  very  acceptable  at  Cambridge ;  but  at 
Leicester  he  lamented  to  a  friend  that  the  congregation, 
being  generally  less  intelligent,  could  not  be  brought  to 
like  this  method,  and  he  was  annoyed  at  having  to  change 
his  habit,  and  hunt  up  two  separate  texts  for  every  Sunday. 

2.  But  the  thing  here  specially  proposed  is  to  offer 
practical  suggestions  as  to  the  proper  management  of  expos- 
itory preaching.  It  is  in  several  respects  a  peculiar  vari- 
*.ty  of  discourse,  requiring  peculiar  treatment;  and  yet 
the  treatises  of  Homiletics,  while  never  failing  to  urge  that 
this  method  has  great  advantages,  seldom  furnish  the  stu- 

*  Horn.  p.  167. 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES     OF    SERMONS.       303 

dent  with  any  directions  for  his  guidance  in  attempting  it. 
The  hints  which  foUow  are  derived  from  some  experience 
and  observation,  from  conversation  with  other  ministers, 
and  from  tlie  study  of  the  best  specimens  within  reach. 

An  expository  di.3Cour;-e  may  be  defined  as  one  wdiich 
is  occupied  mainly,  or  at  any  rate  very  largely,  with  the 
exposition  of  Scripture.  It  by  no  means  excludes  argu- 
ment :ui(l  exlioruuion  as  to  the  doctrines  or  lessons  which 
this  exposition  develops.  It  may  be  devoted  to  a  long 
passage,  or  to  a  very  short  one,  even  a  part  of  a  sentence. 
It  may  be  one  of  a  scries,  or  may  stand  by  itscli'.  We  at 
once  perceive  that  there  is  no  broad  line  of  division  be- 
tween expository  preaching  and  the  common  methods,  but 
that  one  may  pass  by  almost  insensible  gradations  from 
textual  to  expository  sermons.*  We  see,  too,  that  men 
often  preach  expository  sermons  which  they  would  not 
call  by  that  name.  Moreover,  it  is  common  to  apply  the 
term  only  to  discourses  ujDon  the  doctrinal,  preceptive,  and 
devotional  portions  of  the  Bible,  and  not  to  those  which 
treat  of  the  narrative  portions.  Now  the  methods  of  expo- 
sition appropriate  to  Scripture  history  are  of  course  quite 
different  from  those  applied  to  the  other  portions.  But 
whenever  the  discourse  is  not  merely  a  discussion  of  certain 
thoughts  suggested  by  a  Scripture  story  or  scene,  but  in 
the  first  place  spends  much  time  in  bringing  out  clearly 
and  vividly  the  scene  or  story  itself,  that  is  really  histor- 
ical exposition.  And  this  is  surely  a  highly  important 
class  of  expository  discourses.  A  very  large  portion  of 
the  Bible  consists  of  narrative,  and  in  this  as  in  other 
respects  the  Bible  is  adapted  to  its  purpose ;  for  narrative 
possesses  an  unfailing  interest,  for  old  and  young,  culti- 
vated and  ignorant,  converted  and  unconverted.     But  ser- 

*  Nearly  all  that  has  been  said  above,  ^  2,  upon  text-sermons, 
applies  directly  to  expository  preaching.  See  also  ^  1,  2,  plan  of 
discourse. 


304       DIFFERENT    SPECIES     OF    SERMONS. 

mons  on  historical  passages  are  very  apt  to  err,  in  one  of 
two  directions.  In  the  one  case  tlie  preacher  makes  haste 
to  deduce  from  the  narrative  before  him  a  subject,  or  cer- 
tain doctrines  or  lessons,  and  p]-ocecds  to  discuss  these 
precisely  as  if  he  had  drawn  them  from  some  verse  in 
Komans  or  the  Psalms ;  thus  sinking  the  narrative,  with 
all  its  charm,  completely  out  of  sight.  In  tiie  other  case, 
he  indulges  in  a  vast  amount  of  the  often  ridiculous  thing 
called  "  word-painting,"  overlaying  the  simple  and  beau- 
tiful Scripture  story  with  his  elaborate  descriptions,  and 
showing  no  desire,  or  having  no  time,  to  give  us  any 
glimpse  of  the  lessons  which  the  narrative  teaches.  There 
is  certainly  a  middle  course.  Without  consuming  our  time 
in  exhibiting  overwrought  pictures  of  his  own,  the  preacher 
may  seek  to  throw  light  on  the  Bible  picture,  so.  as  to  make 
us  see  it  plainly  and  vividly,  and  may  either  indicate  the 
lessons  as  he  advances  from  point  to  point  or  group  them 
in  the  latter  part  of  his  discourse.  What  we  insist  on  is, 
that  there  ought  to  be  such  a  method  of  preaching  upon 
the  narrative  portions  of  Scripture  as  should  be  distinct- 
ively appropriate  to  narrative,  while  yet  it  is  preach- 
ing.* 

(1.)  What  now  is  the  prime  requisite  to  the  effectiveness 
of  an  expository  sermon  ?  Our  answer  must  be,  Jinity. 
Unity  in  a  discourse  is  necessary  to  instruction,  to  convic- 
tion, and  to  persuasion.  Without  it,  the  taste  of  enlight- 
ened hearerjs  cannot  be  satisfied,  and  even  the  uncultivated, 
though  they  may  not  know  why,  will  be  far  less  deeply 
impressed.  But  unity  in  an  expository  discourse  is  by 
many  preachers  never  aimed  at.  They  conceive  of  it  as 
a  mere  series  of  disjointed  remarks  upon  the  successive 
verses.  It  was  to  this  kind  of  "  homilies  "  that  Schleier- 
macher  referred,  when  he  said  that  they  are  composed  of 

*  Comp.  on  historical  subjects,  Part  I,  chap.  3,  g  3,  and  on  de- 
Boription,  Part  I,  chap.  5,  §  1, 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS.        305 

little  sermons  of  the  common  form  tacked  together/"  But 
it  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  an  expository  sermon  slionld 
exhibit  this  fault.  "  The  difficulty  as  to  unity,  presented 
by  this  kind  of  discourse,  never  amounts  to  impossibility. 
We  do  not  at  random  cut  from  the  general  text  of  tiie 
sacred  book,  the  particular  text  of  a  homily.  The  selec- 
tion is  not  arbitrary.  The  limit  <>:' t;-'"  t  ::t  i=  i-^recieter- 
mincd  l\v  reference  to  unity,  wiiich,  thereiore,  Ave  snail  be 
at  no  loss  to  discover  in  it."  f  In  making  a  single,  detached 
expository  discourse,  one  can  easily  see  to  it  that  the  pas- 
sage selected  shall  have  unity.  In  contiinious  exposition 
of  the  same  book,  it  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  take 
a  passage  in  which  this  is  not  the  case ;  but  even  then,  we 
may  gather  from  it  such  thoughts  as  can  be  framed  into 
one  plan,  and  pass  over  the  remainder,  or  notice  them  very 
briefly.  Let  there  be  unity- at  v/hatever  cost.  And  not 
only  this,  but  structure.  Thanks  to  tiie  intiuence  of  the 
schoolmen,  the  modern  mind  greatly  delights  in  analysis,^ 
and  in  the  regular  construction  of  the  materials  which 
analysis  has  furnished,  and  hence  the  great  preference  of 
many  for  topica,l  discourses.  The  homilies  left  us  by  the 
fathers  are  frequently  quite  deficient  in  respect  of  orderly 
structure,  and  sometimes  even  destitute  of  unity.  And  some 
persons  appear  to  imaging  that  we  can  have  no  "homilies" 
except  upon  the  model  of  the  fathers,  and  with  a  total 
disregard  of  modern  taste  and  modes  of  thought.  But  a 
discourse  upon  an  extended  passage  of  Scripture  well 
chosen  and  well  handled,  may  have  a  definite  Topic,  and  a 
distinct  and  orderly  plan,  and  yet  not  fail  to  be  an  expos- 
itory discourse,  dealing  largely  in  explanation  of  the  text. 
Let  us  carefully  observe,  then,  that  an  expository  sermon 
may  have,  and  must  have,  both  unity  and  an  orderly  struc- 
ture ;  for  the  frequent  practical  neglect  of  these  requisites 


^26* 


*  Palmer,  Horn.  s.  380. 

f  Vinet,  p.  148;  comp.  Shedd,  p.  153. 


306       DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS. 

is  ODe  principal  cause  of  those  failures  to  ^Yhich  allusion 
was  made  at  the  outset. 

(2.)  When  an  inexperienced  preacher  begins  to  think 
of  attempting  expository  preaching,  his  mind  is  very  apt 
to  turn  at  once  tov.ard  tlie  idea  of  continuous  exposition. 
He  must  get  up  a  soric.=.'^'  But  why  should  not  the  preacher 
first  discipline  himself  in  this  kind  of  preaching,  and 
accustom  his  congregation  to  it,  by  the  exposition,  every 
now  and  then,  of  detached  passages?  It  will  be  time 
enough  for  a  series  when  lio  lias  gained  a  little  more  prac- 
tice, yea,  and  has  made  repeated  and  very  mature  study 
of  the  book  to  be  handled.  And  let  it  be  urged  that  first 
attempts  shall  not  1)9  made  upon  a  Psalm,  as  is  very  gen- 
erally the  case ;  for  with  occasional  exceptions,  the  Psalms 
are  comparatively  lacking  in  manifest  unity,  and  in  dis- 
tinct connection  and  regular  progress,  so  that  it  requires 
practice  to  handle  them  successfully.  It  will  also  some- 
times be  well  to  take  an  extended  passage  and  merely 
make  a  text-sermon  on  a  long  text,  gathering  several 
thoughts  from  it  and  handling  them  as  in  the  ordinary 
text-sermon  upon  a  short  text.  Or  a  brief  text  may  be 
announced,  and  the  sermon  be  occupied  with  a  discussion 
of  the  entire  paragraph  in  which  it  stands.  This  indeed 
is  often  done  by  men  who  have  no  thought  that  they  are 
preaching  expository  sermons.  By  such  means  the  people 
cease  to  imagine  that  expository  preaching  is  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  other  methods,  and  become  accustomed  and 
attached  to  all  alike.  Then,  whenever  a  series  is  attempted, 
there  will  be  little  feeling  of  strangeness  about  it,  and 
much  less  difficulty  in  sustaining  the  interest. 

(3.)  We  turn  now  to  the  case  of  continuous  exposition. 

*  The  author  has  recollections,  more  vivid  than  pleasing,  of  a 
first  attempt,  which  consisted  in  a  series  upon  Colossians,  and 
which  was  declared  by  a  preacher's  best  adviser  to  have  been  on 
the  whole  a  decided  failure. 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS.        307 

Here,  as  has  been  intimated,  the  first  thinor  to  be  done  is 
to  make  a  careful  study  beforehand  of  the  entire  book,  or 
other  portion  of  Scripture  to  vvliich  the  series  is  to  be 
devoted.  To  view  every  booli  as  a  whole,  to  grasp  its 
entire  contents,  and  then  trace  in  detail  the  progress  of  its 
narrative  or  argument,  is  a  method  of  Scripture  study  far 
too  little  practised.  It  is  one  of  the  benefits  of  expository 
preaching  that  it  compels  the  preacher  to  study  in  this 
way.  We  may  say  in  general,  that  no  man  will  succeed 
in  expository  preaching  unless  he  delights  in  exegetical 
study  of  the  Bible,  unless  he  loves  to  search  out  the  exact 
meaning  of  its  sentences,  phrases,  words.  In  order  to 
this,  a  knowledge  of  the  original  languages  of  Scripture 
is  of  course  exceedingly  desirable,  but  it  is  by  no  means 
indispensable.  Andrew  Fuller,  who  dealt  largely  and  suc- 
cessfully in  this  method  of  preaching,  had  substantially 
no  knowledge  of  Hebrew  and  Greek,  and  his  writings  were 
devoted  not  to  commentary,  but  to  didactic  and  polemic 
theology.  Yet  he  loved  to  study  the  very  words  of  Scrip- 
ture. In  all  his  works  it  is  manifest  that  he  did  not  con- 
tent himself  with  gathering  the  general  meaning  of  a 
passage,  but  was  exceedingly  anxious  to  know  its  exact 
meaning.  One  of  the  most  eloquent  Baptist  ministers  of 
America,  who  died  twenty  years  ago,  was  never  so  happy, 
80  charming,  as  in  expository  sermons.  He  too  w^as  unac- 
quainted with  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  was  not  liberally 
supplied  with  commentaries ;  but  he  loved,  above  all  things, 
to  ponder  and  to  talk  about  the  meaning  of  God's  word. 
There  appears  to  have  been  a  change  in  this  respect  which 
is  to  be  lamented.  We  have  a  great  multiplication  of 
commentaries,  and  an  immense  amount  of  more  or  less 
real  study  of  the  Scriptures  in  Sunday  Schools,  we  have 
many  more  ministers  than  formerly  wlio  know  something 
of  the  original  languages,  but  there  is  reason  to  fear  that 
the  close,  thoughtful,  lovingly  patient  study  of  the  Bible 


308       DIFFEREis^T    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS. 

is  less  common  among  the  ministry  now  than  it  once  was 
As  to  conversation  about  the  meaning  of  this  or  that 
passage,  such  as  once  abounded  when  preachers  were 
thrown  together,  it  has  gone  out  of  fashion.  A  man  who 
should  raise  such  a  question  now  among  a  group  of  min- 
isters, sojourning  together  during  the  session  of  some  asso- 
ciation or  convention,  would  be  almost  stared  at.  It  will 
not  do  to  say  that  we  manage  these  questions  better  at 
home  among  our  books'  He  who  most  zealously  uses  his 
books,  at  the  same  time  thinking  for  himself  as  every  man 
that  is  a  man  will  do,  finds  the  largest  pumber  of  points 
arising,  upon  which  the  books  utterly  disagree  or  are  un- 
satisfactory, and  concerning  which  he  would  like  to  com- 
pare views  with  intelligent  brethren.  But  not  to  dwell 
further  upon  this  opinion,  it  is  proper  earnestly  to  insist 
that  one  great  reason  why  many  ministers  find  expository 
preaching  difficult  is,  that  they  have  not  been  sufficiently 
accustomed  to  study  the  Bible.  Our  rapid  general  reading 
is  very'useful,  our  devotional  reading  of  brief  portions  is 
indispensable  to  personal  piety,  but  the  downright  study 
of  Scripture  is  too  often  confined  to  the  texts  for  next 
Sunday,  and' their  immediate  context.  The  first  thing  to 
do,  then,  after  determining  to  give  a  series  of  expository 
sermons  upon  a  book,  or  other  portion  of  Scripture,  is  to 
study  it  all  over  in  advance,  with  some  of  the  best  explan- 
atory commentaries,  and  with  especial  attention  to  the 
freneral  contents  and  connection.  To  commit  the  book  to 
memory  would  be  no  bad  idea,  but  at  any  rate  one  should 
get  the  whole  train  of  thought  or  series  of  facts,  from 
beginning  to  end,  firmly  fixed  in  his  mind. 

Next,  it  would  be  well  to  mark  out  a  scheme  of  sermons 
covering  the  wlioi;-  ground.  Previous  experience  in  the 
exposition  of  detiicliod  passages  will  enable  one  to  do  this 
without  any  great  difficulty,  and  of  course  there  can  be 
alterations,  if  occasion  for  them  should  arise  in  the  prog- 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS.        309 

ress  of  the  series.  The  great  advantage  of  making  out  the 
scheme  in  advance  is,  that  we  can  thus  distribute  most 
judiciouslv  the  several  topics  of  the  l)Ook.  In  Romans, 
for  example,  various  subjects  are  alluded  to  in  the  first 
three  chapters,  which  are  afterwards  treated  at  some  length. 
It  Avould  be  awkward  if  one  should  go  into  any  general 
discussion  of  these  topics  at  the  point  of  their  first  occur- 
rence. They  ought  to  be  briefly  handled  there,  and  re- 
served for  more  extensive  remark  where  they  are  intro- 
duced again.  It  would  very  rarely  be  advisable,  however, 
to  promise  at  the  outset  a  definite  number  of  discourses. 
Indeed,  it  is  not  always  best  to  announce  a  series  at  all.  It 
may  be  added  that  one  must  beware  of  going  too  slowly. 
Let  there  be  manifest  progress,  such  as  the  restless  spirit 
of  our  generation  recpiire^.  But  we  may  pause  upon  any 
specially  interesting  sentence  or  phrase,  even  to  the  extent, 
in  some  cases,  of  devoting  a  whole  sermon  to  it.  Thus 
there  will  be  variety  as  well  as  progress  ;  and  hearers  will 
be  gratified  to  perceive  that  the  preacher  marks  out  pas- 
sages, not  according  to  their  mere  external  dimensioE^  but 
according  to  the  richness  of  their  available  contents. 

(4.)  But  now  the  particular  discourse  is  to  be  constructed. 
The  passage  before  us  has  unity,  and  we  note  the  heads  which 
it  presents,  as  we  should  do  in  a  textual  sermon.  Thus  we 
shall  have  a  structure,  a  discourse,  and  not  a  scattering  talk. 
But  one  of  the  principal  difficulties  in  the  entire  task  now 
presents  itself,  the  proper  handling  of  the  details.  If  we 
simply  take  the  topic  and  the  heads  which  the  passage 
affords,  and  proceed  to  discuss  them  in  our  own  way,  that 
is  not  an  expository  sermon,  but  a  text-sermon.  The 
exposition  of  some  passages,  particularly  in  the  hands  of 
some  men,  will  constantly  tend  towards  this  form,  and 
often  with  advantage.  But  what  we  are  supposed  to  be 
aiming  at,  is  a  strictly  expository  sermon,  in  which  not 
only  the  leading  ideas  of  the  passage  are  brought  out,  but 


310       DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS. 

its  details  are  suitably  explained,  and  made  to  furnish  the 
chief  material  of  the  discourse.  In  order  to  manage  this, 
we  need  to  study  the  details  thoroughly,  so  as  to  master 
them,  instead  of  being  oppressed  by  them.  We  thus,  too, 
enter  more  fully  into  the  spirit  of  the  passage,  as  the 
musician  must  who  makes  variations  on  a  theme.  Then 
we  must  select  and  group.  Here  the  inexperienced 
preacher  oi'ten  errs.  Having  minutely  studied  the  details 
of  the  passage,  and  become  interested  in  them,  he  desires 
to  remark  upon  a  greater  number  of  points  than  the  limits 
of  his  discourse  will  allow.  Thus  it  becomes  so  crowded 
that  the  hearer  follows  with  annoying  difficulty,  and  none 
of  the  numerous  points  presented  have  time  to  impress 
themselves  upon  his  mind.  It  is  indispensable  to  select. 
Of  course  one  will  aim  to  choose  such  details  as  especially 
require  explanation,  and  such  as  will  at  the  same  time 
yield  important  or  interesting  matter.  Often  points  of  no 
great  intrinsic  importance,  slight  traits  in  the  narrative,  or 
minor  links  in  the  argument,  wdll  add  greatly  to  the  viva- 
cit^and  vigor  of  the  discourse.  Every  one  knows  that  in 
oratorical  description  we  must  seek  the  kind  of  excellence 
which  is  seen  in  certain  descriptions  by  Demosthenes  and 
Tacitus,  or  in  Retzsch's  Outlines  —  a  few  lines  and  touches, 
but  those  few  eminently  suggestive  and  stimulating  to  the 
imagination.  Is  there  not  something  similar  in  the  ora- 
torical exposition  of  an  argument  ?  Must  we  not  labor, 
besides  exhibiting  the  outlines,  the  prominent  thoughts  of 
our  passage,  to  choose  out  those  details  which  will  cause 
the  whole  argument  to  stand  forth  in  its  completeness? 
Remember,  we  are  not  preparing  a  commentary,  nor  a 
dogmatic  treatise,  but  an  expository  sermon,  and  the  whole 
treatment  must  be,  in  the  good  sense  of  that  word,  oratori- 
cal. In  this  respect,  as  in  everything  else  pertaining  to 
the  art  of  discourse,  practical  eifort,  controlled  by  just 
principles,  will  not  fail  to  bring  skill. 


DIFFEEENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS.       311 

A  mistake  sometimes  made  consists  in  the  unduly  multi- 
plied and  extended  quotation  of  parnllrl  pn^mrje^.  Thus 
the  details  of  the  text,  too  numerous  inemselves  perhaps 
for  oratorical  purposes,  are  each  surrounded  by  a  mass  of 
other  passages,  and  the  discourse  is  so  loaded  down  as  to 
be  past  endurance.  The  Lectures  of  M'Ghee  on  Ephesians, 
which  are  in  some  respects  good,  err  in  this  direction  very 
sadly.  It  is  a  fault  sometimes  observed  in  other  than 
expository  sermons,  though  in  these  the  temptation  to  it  is 
particularly  great.  It  is  so  easy  for  a  preacher  to  persuade 
himself  that  he  is  putting  honor  upon  Scripture,  by 
quoting  thus  largely,  when  sometimes  he  is  only  putting 
honor  upon  his  own  indolence."^'  Of  course,  judicious 
quotation  from  other  parts  of  Scripture  is  highly  appro- 
priate and  often  exceedingly  valuable,  and  we  need  not 
sympathize  wdth  the  fastidiousness  of  Foster,  any  more 
than  wath  the  opposite  extreme. 

There  is  also  danger  of  error  a?  to  the  treatmrnt  of  dif- 
ficult passages  occurring  in  the  text.  The  preacher  will, 
of  course,  study  these  with  great  care,  for  he  cannot  afibrd, 
as  regards  his  personal  habits,  to  slide  over  difficulties. 
But  having  thus  become  much  interested  in  this  difficult 
portion  of  his  text,  having  become  familiar  with  the  dif- 
ferent views  which  have  been  suggested,  and  the  arguments 
for  one  view  and  against  another,  he  very  naturally  feels 
disposed  to  use  the  matter  so  laboriously  wrought  out,  to 
discuss  the  question  which  appears  so  interesting.  In  this 
way  many  an  expository  sermon  has  been  ruined.  True, 
wherever  the  preacher  is  really  able  to  clear  up  the  diffi- 
culty, and  to  do  this  by  a  comparatively  brief  and  evi- 
dently satisfactory  explanation,  people  will  be  glad  to  hear 
it.  If  he  can  show  that  the  passage,  as  thus  explained, 
presents  some  interesting  and  valuable  truth,  they  will  be 
delighted.     If  it  is  a  passage  which  has  been  made  promi- 

*  The  practice  is  well  satirized  by  Coquerel,  p.  G9. 


312       DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS. 

nent  in  religious  controversies,  or  has  on  any  account 
attracted  extraordinary  attention,  they  might  even  like  to 
hear  something  of  the  process  by  -which  this  satisfactory 
explanation  has  been  reached.  But  such  cases  are  com- 
paratively rare ;  and  in  general,  men  grow  weary  of  a  long 
discussion  of  soiiio  nuae-^iio  vexatissima  or  locus  difficillimus. 
If  the  pro:iciK'r,  ]■)■  long  study  and  a  brief  statement  of 
the  re.^uiis,  ciin  liirov/  aiiv  Jiii'ht  on  such  a  passage,  very 
well;  but  the  ]<^im-  study  i-  ids  aiiair,  not  theirs.  This  is 
only  one  of  many  directions  in  which  preachers  are  apt  to 
err,  in  thinking  the  people  will  be  interested  by  everything 
that  interests  them.  And  then,  where  the  result  of  his 
researches  is  not  satisfactory,  where  he  does  not  feel  that 
he  can  make  the  matter  plain,  let  the  preacher  merely 
notice  that  there  is  a  difficulty  here,  and  pass  on  to  speak 
of  truths  which  the  passage  certainly  does  teach,  to  handle 
what  he  is  confident  he  understands.*  It  is  a  complaint 
o'ften  made  against  tlie  commentaries,  that  they  say  much 
about  the  easy  places,  and  little  about  the  hard  ones.  Now 
where  the  book  is  designed,  not  so  much  for  explanation  as 
for  comment,  in  the  strict  sense  of  that  term  —  and  this  is  the 
case  with  most  of  the  older  works  —  it  is  obviously  proper 
for  the  writer  to  spend  his  time  in  developing  and  applying 
the  teachings  of  those  passages  which  he  understands.  He 
has  no  right  to  develop  and  apply  what  he  is  not  confident 
is  the  true  meaning.  Quite  similar  is  the  case  of  the 
expository  preacher.  To  state  at  great  length  several  dif- 
ferent views  as  to  the  meaning  of  a  passage,  without  being 
able  to  show  cause  why  any  one  of  them  should  be  accepted 

*  A  celebrated  Professor  of  Greek  in  one  of  our  American  Uni- 
vcisities  had  a  youthful  assistant,  who  was  one  day  unexpectedly 
called  on  to  meet  a  class,  without  having  read  over  the  lesson. 
When  asked  afterwards  how  he  had  got  through,  he  said,  *' I  just 
talked  about  what  I  understood,  and  let  alone  vyhat  I  didn't." 
"  Pretty  good  plan,"  said  the  old  gentleman;  "  I  suspect  you  had 
better  continue  to  do  that  as  long  as  you  live." 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS.      313 

or  preferred,  and  then  leave  the  matter  in  that  unsatis- 
factory position,  is  tiresome  in  a  book,  and  in  a  sermon 
intolerable. 

In  the  progress  of  an  expository  discourse,  it  is  often 
desirable  to  keep  the  connection  of  the  text  before  the  minds 
of  the  audience,  by  someAvhat  frequently  glanciiig  back, 
as  we  proceed,  upon  the  ground  already  traversed.  Chrys- 
ostom  sets  us  the  example  of  managing  this  with  skill. 
He  also  frequently  throws  in  some  lively  question  as  to 
what  comes  next,  calculated  to  arouse  the  hearers,  and 
make  them  notice  it  wdien  stated.  Our  audiences,  like 
his,  do  not  commonly  have  the  sacred  text  before  them, 
and  we  must  strive  to  supply  the  deficiency.  By  making 
the  leading  thoughts  of  the  text  quite  distinct,  by  skilfully 
selecting  and  grouping  the  details,  and  by  glancing  back- 
ward and  pointing  forward  as  ve  proceed,  this  serious 
practical  difricuity  can  be  to  a  great  extent  overcome. 

Much  })ain5  should  be  taken  to  point  out  and  ajiply  the 
lessons  wliich  the  text  mr.y  afford.  The  people  need,  and 
desire,  to  have  these  distinctly  stated,  unless  the  appli- 
cation is  exceedingly  obvious.  It  will  somewhat  frequently 
be  more  convenient,  particularly  in  historical  exposition, 
to  apply  each  division  of  the  discourse  as  it  is  presented. 
But  in  many  cases  we  can  do  as  is  common  in  other  ser- 
mons, reserve  the  chief  practical  lessons  for  the  conclusion. 
Of  course  such  lessons  must,  in  general,  be  briefly  indi- 
cated, as  so  much  time  is  needed  for  exposition.  But  where 
there  is  a  subject  of  special  practical  importance,  it  may 
be  discussed  and  urged  at  length,  even  if  some  portions  of 
the  text  have  to  be  left  unexplained.  And  if  current 
events,  or  the  religious  condition  of  the  congregation, 
should  make  it  particularly  desirable  to  discuss  some  prac- 
tical topic  which  the  text  does  not  naturally  suggest,  it 
may  be  introduced  in  the  way  of  remark,  or  of  remote 
application  of  some  general  truth  or  duty.     Here  again, 


314      DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS. 

Chrysostom  presents  us  an  example.  Much  as  he  delighted 
in  explaining  Scripture,  he  yet  felt  that,  in  preaching,  the 
practical  interest  is  paramount ;  and  he  not  only  points 
out  many  lessons  by  the  way,  but  is  almost  sure  to  find 
some  practical  subject  for  the  conclusion,  and  this  is  not 
unfrequently  treated  at  great  length.  Nor  does  he  trouble 
himself  much  as  to  the  association  of  ideas  by  which  he 
shall  reach  any  such  important  practical  matter,  but  often 
uses  a  freedom  which  critics  with  strict  notions  of  what  we 
call  "sermonizing"  would  be  likely  to  condemn.  In  his 
sermon  on  the  Transfiguration,  for  example,  he  wants  to 
bear  down  on  the  money-lenders  there  at  Antioch,  and 
reaches  them  as  follows :  The  three  disciples  were  happy 
in  seeing  Christ's  glory  on  the  mount  —  we  may  hope  to 
behold  him  in  a  more  splendid  glory  —  but  if  we  wish  to 
do  so  we  must  take  heed  what  manner  of  lives  we  are  lead- 
ing —  ^e  must  not  do  this  and  that,  must  not  oppress  the 
poor  —  and  so  he  comes  to  the  matter  of  charging  enor- 
mous interest,  which  is  then  discussed  for  some  time,  with 
vehement  denunciation  and  entreaty.  By  a  still  more 
roundabout  process  he  passes  from  the  feeding  of  the  five 
thousand  to  an  earnest  attack  upon  the  elaborately  em- 
broidered and  curiously  fashioned  sandals  which  were  then 
the  rage.  And  he  can  frequently  return  to  the  same  sub- 
ject, if  it  seems  to  require  renewed  censure  or  exhortation, 
managing  to  bring  it  in  somehow.  In  one  long  series  of 
discourses  he  rarely  fails  to  inveigh  against  profanity  ;  and 
his  favorite  topic  of  alms-giving  may  be  expected  to  recur 
almost  anywhere,  upon  the  slightest  provocation.  Now  in 
all  this  his  example  is  not  faultless,  certainly,  but  it  is 
extremely  instructive.  "We  have  seen  that  there  is  to  be 
desired  a  much  greater  unity,  and  much  more  of  orderly 
structure  and  regular  progress  than  is  exhibited  in  Chrys- 
ostom's  homilies.  Bu  t  the  strictest  notions  in  this  direc- 
tion must  not  prevent  us  from  frequently  and  freely  intro- 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS.       315 

duc_ing  matters  of  practical  interest.  In  this  way  tho 
people  will  be  led  to  listen  much  more  attentively  to  our 
explanations,  being  constantly  on  the  lookout  for  some 
practical  application  to  themselves ;  and  they  will  also  be 
constantly  reminded  of  what  men  are  so  prone  to  forget 
the  intimate  relation  between  Scripture  truth  and  daily 
lifc."^  Pastors  sometimes  shrink  from  undertaking  a  series 
of  expository  discourses,  from  the  fear  that  they  will  not 
be  able  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  precise  condition  and 
wants,  week  after  week,  of  their  peoiDle ;  but  if  the  sugges- 
tions just  made  be  acted  upon,  there  will  in  this  respect 
be  no  difficulty.  Besides,  where  one  preaches  twice  every 
Sunday,  according  to  the  common  if  not  commendable 
fashion  of  the  present  day,  he  may  of  course  have  one 
sermon  free  for  as  much  variety  of  specific  adaptation  as 
he  pleases. 

*  "Expository  preaching  should  aim  at  direct  moral  efiFect.  A  cold 
and  formal  delineation  of  the  course  of  thought  in  a  portion  of  the 
sacred  writings,  a  heartless  dissection  of  its  words  and  phrases  with- 
out the  glow,  and  feeling,  and  high  religious  sensibility  of  the 
inspired  penman,  without  ardent  love  for  the  souls  of  men  and  an 
earnest  desire  to  bring  them  to  a  knowledge  of  the  truth,  can  an- 
swer none  of  the  purposes  of  expository  preaching.  It  is  holding 
up  a  cold  and  mangled  corpse  instead  of  the  warm  and  living  body. 
Expository  preaching  should  be  regulated  by  a  knowledge  of  the 
depths  of  human  nature  and  should  touch  the  secret  springs  of  the 
human  soul.  The  Bible  itself  is  remarkable  for  these  character- 
istics, and  it  is  the  greatest  of  mistakes  to  imagine  that  the  Bible 
can  be  interpreted  by  a  knowledge  of  words  alone.  No  book  has 
ever  gone  so  deeply  into  all  the  windings  and  corners  of  the  soul 
and  touched  so  many  of  the  vibrating  chords  of  the  heart.  To 
think  of  spreading  out  the  hidden  glories  of  inspiration  by  the 
mere  study  of  languages  without  the  study  of  man,  is  like  attempt- 
ing to  bring  music  from  the  organ  by  blowing  the  bellows  without 
touching  the  keys.  It  is  the  lamentable  mistake  so  frequently  made 
en  this  point,  that  has  often  brought  expository  preaching  into  dis- 
repute and  disuse."  Prof.  C.  E.  Stowe,  Art.  in  Biblical  Repos. 
Vol.  V,  p.  388 


316       DIFFERENT    SPECIES     OF    SERMONS. 

(5.)  One  who  wishes  to  cultivate  himself  as  an  expository  preacher, 
will  of  course  be  disposed  to  search  the  literature  of  the  pulpit  for 
good  examples  of  that  species  of  sermons.  It  may  therefore  be 
worth  while  to  mention  some  specimens  which  it  would  be  instruct- 
ive to  study,  selecting  such  as  are  easily  accessible. 

First,  a  few  good  expository  sermons  on  detached  passages. 
Monod  on  the  "  Woman  of  Canaan  "  (Fish's  "  Select  Discourses 
from  the  French  and  German  "),  is  good.  Dr.  J.  Addison  Alexan- 
der on  Titus  ii.  11-15  (Sermons,  vol.  I),  is  an  admirable  specimen 
of  doctrinal  and  practical  exposition.  Dr.  R.  Fuller's  discourses 
on  the  "Walk  to  Emmaus,'"  and  on  the  "Three  Hebrews  in  the 
Furnace  "  (Sermons),  are  very  fine.  Dr.  Wayland's  "  Day  in  the 
Life  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,"  and  "Fall  of  Peter"  (Sermons  on  Sal- 
vation by  Christ),  are  of  remarkable  excellence.  Spurgeon  on  the 
"Blind  Beggar"  (Sermons,  vol.  VI),  is  more  distinctly  expository 
than  is  common  in  his  sermpns. 

Passing  to  specimens  of  continuous  or  connected  exposition,  we 
mention  the  following  as  chietly  historical.  Krummacher"s  "Elijah 
the  Tishbite"  is  hardly  equalled  by  any  of  his  later  volumes,  ex- 
cept his  "  David."  The  "Friends  of  Christ,'"  by  Dr.  N.  Adams,  is 
a  capital  volume.  Blunt's  "  Lectures  on  the  History  of  our  Saviour  " 
form  a  good  example  for  most  of  us,  because  they  are  interesting 
and  profitable,  while  not  exhibiting  remai-kable  abilities.  Monod's 
"Five  Sermons  on  the  Apostle  Paul"  ought  by  all  means  to  be 
studied.  More  distinctly  expository  than  these,  and  among  the  most 
instructive  and  charming  specimens  of  their  class  in  our  recent 
literature,  are  Hanna's  six  small  volumes  of  Lectures  on  the  Life 
of  Christ,  republished  in  this  country. 

And  the  following  are  chiefly  doctrinal  or  preceptive.  Chalmers  on 
Romans  is  eminently  worthy  of  study,  and  is  most  instructive  to 
those  who  are  best  acquainted  with  his  other  sermons,  and  his 
peculiar  cast  of  mind^  Leighton  on  1  Peter  is  famous,  and  of  a 
beautiful  spirit.  Luther  on  Galatians  is  highly  interesting  and 
instructive,  and  is  perhaps  the  best  specimen  remaining  of  those 
powerful  expository  sermons  by  which  he  wrought  so  great  a 
work.  Cumraing's  volumes,  as  on  Revelation,  on  Daniel,  on  the 
Parables,  etc.,  are,  whatever  one  may  think  of  his  peculiar  opin- 
ions, excellent  models  of  easy,  agreeable  and  attractive  popular 
exposition.  Some  of  tlie  sermons  of  F.  W.  Robertson,  as  well 
as  his  volume  on  Corinthians,  are  admirable  specimens  of  a  certain 
kind  of  exposition  ;    though  one  cannot  be    oo  careful,  in  reading 


DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMOXS.       317 

any  of  his  works,  to  guard  against  his  grievous  errors  as  to  in- 
spiration and  atonement.  Rjles  "Expository  Thoughts  on  the 
Gospels"  (several  volumes),  contain  only  the  substance  of  ser- 
mons, not  written  out  in  full,  but  they  are  very  useful  for  our 
purpose.  The  most  instructive  example,  however,  of  expository 
discourse,  both  doctrinal  and  historical,  is  the  Homilies  of 
Chrysostoni.  "While  no  man  of  sense  would  think  of  making  dis- 
courses now  precisely  ou  the  model  of  his,  it  is  remarkable  how 
much  may  be  learned  from  them  as  to  the  skilful,  spirited  and 
etFective  management  of  expository  preaching.  Those  who  have 
not  access  to,  or  cannot  read  his  works  in  the  original,  would  find 
it  desirable  to  procure  a  translation,  such  as  is  contained  in  the 
Oxford  Library  of  the  Fathers.  Profound  students  of  his  works 
consider  the  best  of  his  Homilies  to  be  those  on  the  Psalms  and  on 
Matthew.  In  the  former  there  is  necessarily  much  erroneous  inter- 
pretation, since  he  knew  no  Hebrew,  and  had  to  rely  on  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  which  in  the  Psalms  is  full  of  errors.  The  volumes  on. 
Matthew  are  therefore  probably  the  most  valuable  for  our  purpose, 
and  these  can  be  obtained  at  no  great  cost.  One  who  knows  how 
much  interest  Andrew  Fuller  and  Robert  Hall  took  in  expository 
preaching,  would  expect  to  find  profitable  examples  in  their  works. 
But  he  would  be  disappointed.  Fuller's  publislicd  expositions  on 
Genesis  and  on  Revelation  contain  the  substance  of  sermons,  and 
comprise  much  judicious  interpretation  and  sound  thinking;  but 
they  give  us  very  little  information  as  to  the  form  of  his  discourses, 
and  none  at  all  as  to  his  management  of  details.  Still  less  to  the 
purpose  is  the  report  of  Hall's  sermons  on  Philippians.  The  copi- 
ous "  Homiletical  and  Practical "  notes  in  Lange's  Commentaries 
may  be  found  profitable  in  expository  preaching  by  those  who  take 
pains  to  use  them  wisely. 

Some  of  the  works  in  this  brief  list  might  not  be  regarded  as 
expository  sermons,  according  to  the  common  use  of  that  phrase. 
But  we  are  here  claiming  for  it  a  wider  range  than  is  common,  and 
have  insisted  that  this  method  of  preaching  often  approximates 
closely  to  the  other  methods. 

If  the  suggestions  wliich  have  been   offered  are  well 
founded,  it  will  be  obvious  that  expository  preaching  is  a 
difficult  task.     It  requires  much  close  study  of  Scripture 
in  general,  and  mu.  h  special  study  of  the  particular  pas- 


oia      DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF    SERMONS. 

sage  to  be  treated.  To  make  a  discourse  which  shall  be 
explanatory  and  yet  truly  oratorical,  bearing  a  rich  mass 
of  details  but  not  burdened  with  them,  full  of  Scripture 
and  abounding  in  practical  applications,  to  bring  even 
dull,  uninformed  and  unspiritual  minds  into  interested 
and  profitable  contact  with  an  extended  portion  of  the 
Bible  —  of  course  this  must  be  difficult.  One  cannot  say 
then,  as  is  often  said,  try  expository  preaching  first  on 
week-nights,  till  you  and  the  people  become  accustomed 
to  it.  Nay,  try  it  now  and  then  for  your  principal  sermon 
on  Sunday,  without  mentioning  that  you  are  about  to  do 
any  thing  unusual,  and  lay  out  your  best  strength  upon  an 
earnest  eflTort  to  make  it  at  once  instructive,  interesting, 
and  impressive.  Then  you  and  the  people  will  gradually 
become  accustomed  to  expository  preaching  as  it  should 
be.  After  repeating,  more  or  less  frequently,  such  occa- 
sional eflforts,  you  will  know  how  to  prepare  for  an  expos- 
itory series.  He  who  begins  it  as  an  easy  thing,  will  find 
expository  preaching  surpassingly  diflicult;  but  he  who 
manfully  takes  hold  of  it  as  difficult,  wdll  find  it  grow 
easier  and  more  pleasant,  wdth  every  year  of  his  expe- 
rience. Not  every  man  will  find  the  expository  method 
best  suited  to  his  mental  endowments.  But  every  one 
ought  to  acquire  the  power  of  employing  it  with  skill  and 
success.  Then,  though  it  be  better  for  this  or  that  man  to 
preach  for  the  most  part  in  other  ways,  he  may  continue  to 
introduce  expository  sermons  now  and  then,  and  may  also 
infuse  a  larger  expository  element  into  many  of  his  textual 
and  topical  sermons.  And  it  may  be  confidently  asserted 
that  many  a  one  who  now  thinks  this  method  of  preaching 
unsuited  to  him,  needs  nothing  but  diligent  study  and 
practice,  upon  some  such  principles  as  have  been  indi- 
cated, t(^  make  his  expository  sermons  very  profitable  to 
his  hearers,  and  singularly  delightful  to  himself. 


PART   III. 
STYLE. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

GENERAL   OBSERVATIONS   ON   STYLE.* 

I  1.  Nature  and  Impoktance  of  Style.     §  2,  Means  of 
Improving  Style. 


¥ 


§  1.      NATURE   AND   IMPORTANCE   OF  STYLE. 

E  frequently  say  of  a  writer,  that  he  wields  a  ready, 
an  elegant,  or  a  caustic  pen.  In  like  manner  the 
stylus,  the  pointed  iron  instrument  with  which  the  Romans 
wrote  upon  their  tablets  covered  with  wax,  is  often  em- 
ployed by  Cicero  to  denote  the  manner  of  writing,  the 
manner  of  expressing  one's  thoughts  in  writing,  and  at  a 
later  period  was  very  naturally  extended  to  speaking.  In 
modern  times  the  use  has  been  still  further  extended, 
by  analogy,  to  the  fine  arts,  to  dress,  and  a  great  variety 
of  matters.     A  man's  style,  then,  is  his  characteristic  man- 

*  Besides  the  general  treatises  on  Rhetoric  and  Homiletics,  on 

Composition,  on  Grammar,  and  on   the  science  of  Language,  the 

student  will  find  valuable  observations  in  the  Essays  on  Style  by 

De  Quincey,  Bulwer  (Caxtoniana),  and  Herbert  Spencer  (Essays, 

New  York,  Appleton),  and  in  Heni^y  Rogers  on  Sacred  Eloquence 

("Reason  and  Faith,  and  other  Essays;  "  originally  in  Edinburgh 

Review,  October,  1840). 

*  ^  319 


320      GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    STYLE. 

ner  of  expressing  his  thoughts,  whether  in  writing  or  in 
speech. 

Every  one  has  his  ovrn  handwriting,  if  he  Avrites  at  all 
easily  and  well.  Any  early  imitation  of  a  "  copy "  Avill 
soon  be  merged  in  his  own  individual  style  of  writing, — 
as  in  this  sense  also  we  still  call  it.  And  so  in  the  higher 
sense,  every  one  has  his  own  style.  The  most  slavish  imita- 
tion could  not  be  perfect ;  the  man's  own  character  will 
sometimes,  in  spite  of  him,  modify  his  style.  No  writer  on 
the  subject  fails  to  quote  the  saying  of  BufFon,  "  The  style 
is  the  man."  This  saying  Buffon  himself  curiously  illus- 
trated, for  his  style  is  marked  by  a  stately  and  elaborate 
elegance,  and  it  is  stated  that  he  could  not  write  well  unless 
he  was  in  full  dress.  To  the  same  effect  Landor  said, 
"  Language  is  a  part  of  a  man's  character  ; "  *  and  Les- 
sing,  "  Every  man  should  have  his  own  style  as  he  has  his 
own  nose."t  But  here,  as  everywhere  else,  that  which  is 
most  characteristic  in  a  man  mny  be  disciplined  and  indefi- 
nitely improved,  without  losing  individuality. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  term  style,  as  figuratively 
denoting  one's  manner  of  expressing  his  thoughts,  should 
be  used  in  different  cases  with  a  very  different  extent  of 
meaning.  It  is  sometimes  taken  to  include  arrangement, 
even  that  of  an  entire  treatise  or  discourse ;  and  there  can 
certainly  be  no  absolute  distinction  made  between  the 
arrangement  of  sentences  and  paragraphs,  and  that  of  the 
discourse.  Commonly,  however,  the  general  arrangement 
is  not  included  in  the  term.  On  the  other  hand,  style  is 
sometimes  distinguished  from  diction,  the  latter  then  denot- 
ing one's  vocabulary,  the  character  of  the  words  and  par- 
ticular phrases  which  he  employs,  while  the  former  would 
include  everything  else  belonging  to  his  mode  of  express- 
ing thought.  But  it  is  best,  according  to  the  usual  prac- 
tice, to  include  diction  as  a  part  of  style. 

*  Hoppin,  p.  230.  f  Haven's  Rbct.  p.  241. 


GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    STYLE.      321 

Thus  understood,  style  is  obviously  a  matter  of  very 
great  importance.  A  man's  style  cannot  be  separated  from 
his  modes  of  thought,  from  his  whole  mental  character. 
The  natural  and  common  image  by  which  we  call  it  the 
dress  of  thought,  is  very  apt  to  mislead;  for  style,  as 
Words\Yorth  forcibly  says,  is  not  the  mere  dress,  it  is  the 
incarnation  of  thought.  We  know  another's  thoughts, 
only  as  thus  revealed,  thus  incarnate.*  Aristotle,  it  is 
true,  speaks  slightingly  of  style,  as  a  subject  recently 
introduced  into  treatises  of  rhetoric,  which  it  is  to  some 
little  extent  necessary  to  consider  in  every  system  of 
instruction,  though  the  proof  is  the  main  thing.f  His 
practice  accords  with  this  opinion,  for  his  own  style  is  not 
only  careless  and  harsh,  but  often  vexatiously  obscure. 
And  yet  there  were  already  in  his  language  many  noble 
specimens  of  style,  in  poetry,  history,  oratory,  which  have 
never  been  surpassed ;  so  true  is  it  in  Khetoric  that  just 
theory  follows  excellent  practice.J  It  is  only  a  few  men 
whose  matter  is  so  surpassingly  valuable  as  to  be  highly 
prized,  like  Aristotle's,  notwithstanding  great  faults  of 
style.  The  speakers  and  writers  who  have  been  widely  and 
permanently  influential,  have  usually  accomplished  it  by 
good  thoughts,  well  expressed.  Often,  indeed,  excellence 
of  style  has  given  works  a  wide  and  lasting  popularity 
which  had  little  other  merit.  Goldsmith's  Histories  still 
hold  their  place  in  many  schools,  because  so  charmingly 
written,  though  they  are  not  only  behind  the  age,  but  very 
poorly  represented  the  historical  attainments  of  their  own 
age.  The  wide -spread,  though  short-lived  popularity 
gained  by  Kenan's  fanciful  Life  of  Jesus,  was  due  not 
merely  to  the  sensational  character  of   its   contents,  but 

*  See  also  Day,  p.  213.  t  Arist.  Rhet.  Ill,  1. 

X  Cicero  says  (Orator,  16)  that  ''  when  one  has  found  out  what  to 
Bay  and  in  what  order,  there  still  remains  bi/ far  the  greatest  thing, 
viz.  hotr  to  «>ay  it;  "  but  in  this  he  includes  style  and  delivery. 


322      GENERAL    OBSEEYATIONS    ON    STYLE. 

very  largely  also  to  the  extreme  beauty  of  the  style,  par- 
ticularly in  the  original  French.  When  a  student  at  a 
Jesuit  College,  Kenan  paid  great  attention  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  his  style,  and  he  has  devoted  himself  mainly  to  the 
study  of  language  and  literature.  In  like  manner  science 
has  in  many  cases  gained  a  just  appreciation  only  when 
recommended  by  a  pleasing  style.  This  was  what  Buffon 
did  for  Natural  History.  The  popularity  of  Geology  was 
immensely  increased  among  the  English-speaking  peoples 
by  Hugh  Miller,  through  his  marvellous  powers  of  descrip- 
tion and  the  general  freshness  and  animation  of  his  style. 
And  so  now  with  Agassiz.  Such  facts  go  to  show  that 
Btyle  is  not  a  thing  of  mere  ornament.  Style  is  the  glitter 
and  polish  of  the  warrior's  sword,  but  is  also  its  keen  edge. 
It  can  render  mediocrity  acceptable  and  even  attractive, 
can  make  power  more  powerful  still.  It  can  make  error 
seductive,  and  truth  may  lie  unnoticed  for  want  of  its  aid. 
Shall  religious  teachers  neglect  so  powerful  a  means  of 
usefulness  ?  True,  Paul  says,  "My  speech  and  my  preach- 
ing were  not  w^ith  persuasive  words  of  man's  wisdom."  * 
He  refused  to  deal  in  the  would-be  philosophy  and  the  sen- 
sational and  meretricious  rhetoric  which  were  so  popular 
in  that  rapidly  growing  commercial  city;  but  his  style  is  a 
model  of  passionate  energy,  and  rises,  upon  occasion,  into 
an  inartificial  and  exquisite  beauty.f 

Yet  style  is  in  this  country  much  neglected.  The  French 
surpass  all  other  modern  nations,  in  respect  of  perspicuity, 
elegance,  and  animation,  if  not  energy.  The  cultivated 
English  come  next  to  them  in  finish  of  style,  and  surpass 
them  in  power.  The  English  University  training,  with  all 
its  defects,  has  in  this  respect  produced  noble  results,  as 
may  be  seen  not  only  in  the  great  Parliamentary  orators 
and   the    admirable   newspaper    writing   which    England 

*1  Cor.  2  :  4. 

f  Witness  in  this  same  Epistle,  chap.  13  and  chap.  15. 


GENERAL    OBSEKV  ATIONS    ON    STYLE.      323 

boasts,  bui  also  in  preachers.  The  flimous  Oxford  Tracts 
would  not  have  been  so  influential  but  for  their  admirable 
style.  The  sermons  of  J.  H.  Newman,  Robertson,  Liddon, 
and  Bishop  Wilberforce  are  in  this  respect  greatly  to  be 
admired.  And  the  England  of  this  century  has  credit  for 
Robert  Hall.  The  style  of  German  prose,  with  a  few 
grand  exceptions,*  has  generally  been  very  bad,  par- 
ti cularlv  among  religious  writers.  They  have  apparently 
recognized  no  obligation  to  compel  the  hearer  or  reader  to 
understand  them,  or  even  to  help  him  in  doing  so,  but  have 
aimed  merely  to  express  the  thought  in  a  form  intelligible 
to  themselves,  without  considering  how  it  would  be  with 
others.j  That  is  to  say,  they  have  sought  subjective^ 
excellence  of  style,  and  not  objective.  But  there  seems  to 
be  at  present  a  rapidly  increasing  number  of  German 
speakers  and  writers  whose  style  is  marked  by  perspicuity 
and  grace,  without  sacrificing  Teutonic  profundity  and 
strength.  In  America  we  have  some  writers  and  speakers, 
both  secular  and  religious,  who  can  be  held  up  as  models. 
But  in  general  we  fall  seriously  below  the  English.  An 
extreme  negligence  and  looseness  of  style  very  generally 
prevails.  And  the  great  American  fault,  in  speaking  and 
writing,  is  an  excessive  vehemence,  a  constant  effort  to  be 
striking.  Our  style,  as  well  as  our  delivery,  too  often  lacks 
the  calmness  of  conscious  strength,  the  repose  of  simple 
sincerity,  the  quiet  earnestness  which  only  now  and  then 
becomes  impassioned.  "  He  will  be  an  eloquent  man  who 
shall  be  able  to  speak  of  small  matters  in  lowly  phrase,  of 
ordinary  topics  temperately,  of  great  subjects  with  passion 
and  power."  J 

One  cause  of  this  neglect  of  style  among  us,  and  to  some 
extent  in  England  also,  is  the  failure  to  understand  it? 
inseparable  connection  with  the  thought  conveyed.     Do 

*  Goethe's  prose  style  is  scarcely  surpassed  in  any  language. 
t  Comp.  Quintilian,  VIII,  2,  19.  J  Cicero,  Orator,  29. 


324      GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    STYLE. 

Quincey  says,  "  Here  our  quarrel  is  coextensive  ^vith  that 
general  principle  in  England,  which  tends  in  all  things  to 
Bet  the  ruatter  above  the  manner,  the  substance  above  the 
external  sliow ;  a  principle  noble  in  itself,  but  inevitably 
wrong  wherever  the  manner  blends  inseparably  with  the 
substance."*  The  best  style  attracts  least  attention  to 
itself,  and  none  but  the  critical  observer  is  apt  to  appre- 
ciate its  excellence,  most  men  giving  credit  solely  to  the 
matter,  and  having  no  idea  how  much  the  manner  has  con- 
tributed to  attract  and  impress  them.  The  thought  is  cer- 
tainly the  main  thing  ;  but  the  style  also  is  important. 
''The  experience  of  all  times,  and  the  testimony  of  all 
teachers,  present  to  us  as  inseparable,  these  two  proposi- 
tions:  1.  That  we  must  not  flatter  ourselves  that  we  shall 
have  a  good  style,  without  an  interesting  fund  of  ideas. 
2.  That  even  with  an  interesting  and  substantial  supply  of 
ideas,  we  must  not  flatter  ourselves  that  style  will  come  of 
itself."  t 

It  follows  from  all  this  that  every  writer  and  speaker 
should  pay  great  attention  to  the  improvement  of  his  style. 
High  excellence  in  style  is  necessarily  rare;  for  a  discourse, 
a  paragraph,  even  a  sentence,  is  really  a  work  of  art,  fash- 
ioned by  constructive  imagination  —  and  artist  gifts  of 
every  kind  are  rare.  But  any  man  who  will  try,  long 
enough  and  hard  enough,  can  learn  to  say  what  he  means, 
to  say  forcibly  what  he-  deeply  feels,  and  to  clothe  his 
thoughts  in  a  garb  at  least  of  homely  neatness.  Some  of 
the  best  writers  and  speakers  have  had  peculiar  difficulty 
in  acquiring  a  good  style,  e.  g.  John  Foster ;  and  their 
success  affords  encouragement  to  us  all. 

§  2.       MEANS   OF    IMPROVING   STYLE.  • 

Oratorical  style  is  but  one  out  of  many  species  of  style, 
and  one  variety  of  the  oratorical  style  is  that  of  the  pulpit, 
*0n  Style,  p.  66.  f  Vinet,  p.  353. 


GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS     ON    STYLE.       325 

Yet  a  man's  characteristic  style  will  be  essentially  the  same, 
in  all  kinds  of  writing  and  speaking ;  and  mental  cultiva- 
tion should  never  be  confined  to  the  sphere  of  one's  chief 
mental  activity.  We  are  therefore  to  consider  the  means 
of  improvement,  not  merely  as  regards  that  which  is  pecu- 
liar to  oratory,  but  as  regards  style  in  general. 

J^  The  study  of  language,  particularly  of  our  own  lan- 
guage, is  in  this  respect  exceedingly  profitable.  The  science 
of  language,  which  in  the  last  forty  years  has  accomplished 
so  much,  and  which  is  now  making  such  rapid  progress, 
cannot  be  considered  inferior,  in  point  of  interest  and 
instructiveness,  to  any  other  of  the  sciences.  But  the 
study  of  the  science  as  such,  has  only  an  indirect  bearing 
on  style ;  it  is  the  practical  acquisition  of  languages  that 
is  here  the  great  source  of  benefit.  Tliis,  when  pursued 
with  system,  and  on  sound  principles,  compels  close  atten- 
tion to  the  nature  of  language  in  general,  to  the  history, 
changes  and  capacities  of  words,  and  the  relation  of  syn- 
tactical construction  to  the  difi^erent  forms  and  processes 
of  thought.  It  also  attracts  to  the  peculiarities  of  our  own 
language  a  keener  and  more  intelligent  notice,  than  most 
persons  would  otherwise  bestow.  These  benefits  are  more 
or  less  derived  from  the  study  of  any  language  whatsoever. 
There  is  peculiar  advantage  in  choosing  French  or  German, 
because  they  correspond  to  the  two  great  elements  of  which 
our  own  language  is  chiefly  composed.  But  the  time- 
honored  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  is  more  advantageous 
still.  In  their  inflections,  their  syntax,  their  prose  rhythm, 
these  languages  exhibit  the  full  and  instructive  develop- 
ment of  excellencies  which  English,  French,  German  pos- 
sess only  in  part.  We  have  recourse  to  them  as  geologists 
explain  outlying  rocks  or  scattered  fossils,  by  comparing 
them  with  beds  in  which  similar  specimens  lie  side  by  side 
with  others  to  which  they  are  related.  This  careful  study 
of  other  languages  is  not  only  useful  as  a  part  of  the 
28 


326      GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    STYLE. 

speaker's  early  training,  but  ought,  so  far  as  possible,  to 
be  kept  up  through  life.  It  has  been  thus  kept  up  by  a 
very  large  proportion  of  those  who  have  attained  great 
excellence  of  style. 

But  whether  acquainted  or  not  with  other  languages,  a 
man  must  earnestly  study  his  own.  It  is  very  encouraging 
to  observe  the  now  rapidly  increasing  attention  to  the 
English  Language  in  our  best  high-schools,  Colleges  and 
Universities.  Apart  from  its  incomparable  practical  im- 
portance to  us,  the  English  is  in  itself  a  worthy  study,  a 
most  noble  tongue.  Foreigners  naturally  complain  much 
of  those  irregularities  in  spelling  and  pronunciation,  which 
have  been  almost  necessarily  produced  by  the  union  of  two 
diverse  languages  into  one.  Critics  at  home  can  easily 
point  out  its  weakness,  and  compare  it  unfavorably,  in  this 
or  that  respect,  with  some  other  idiom.  But  set  against  all 
this  the  words  of  a  great  German  scholar,  the  foremost 
among  all  students  of  the  Gothic  family  of  languages. 
"  The  English  language,  which  by  no  mere  accident  has 
produced  and  upborne  the  greatest  and  most  predominant 
poet  of  modern  times,  may  with  all  right  be  called  a  world- 
language  ;  and  like  the  English  people,  appears  destined 
hereafter  to  prevail  with  a  sway  more  extensive  even  than 
its  present  over  all  portions  of  the  globe.  For  in  wealth, 
good  sense,  and  closeness  of  structure,  no  other  of  the  lan- 
guages at  this  day  spoken  deserves  to  be  compared  with  it 
—  not  even  our  German,  which  is  torn,  even  as  we  are  torn, 
and  must  first  rid  itself  of  many  defects,  before  it  can  enter 
boldly  into  the  lists,  as  a  competitor  with  the  English."  * 
It  iS  not  like  Italian  for  music,  nor  like  French  for  conver- 
sation, nor  like  German  as  to  facility  in  forming  new  com- 
pounds, but  taken  all  in  all,  for  history,  poetry,  philosophy, 
oratory,  for  society  and  for  business,  it  is  at  present  un- 
equalled     A  popular  writer  has   recently  called  it  "the 

♦  Jacob  Grimm,  quoted  by  Trench  and  Angus. 


GENERAL     OBSERVATIONS     ON    STYLE.       327 

grammarless  tongue";  but  English  has  a  grammar,  a  very 
reguLar  syntax,  and  one  that  is  often  and  flagrantly  violated, 
even  by  able  and  cultivated  men.  De  Quincey  declares  : 
"It  makes  us  blush  to  add,  that  even  grammar  is  so  little 
of  a  perfect  attainment  amongst  us,  that  ^vith  two  or  three 
exceptions,  (one  being  Shakspeare,  whom  some  affect  to 
consider  as  belonging  to  a  serai-barbarous  age,)  we  have 
never  seen  the  writer,  through  a  circuit  of  prodigious  read- 
ing, ^yho  has  not  sometimes  violated  the  accidence  or  the 
syntax  of  English  Grammar."  ^' 

The  most  scientific  works  on  English  Grammar  have  to 
be  sought  in  German  —  a  reproach  to  the  English-speak- 
ing people  which  ought  to  cease.f  Persons  who  have  been 
carefully  drilled  in  Greek  and  Latin,  especially  by  written 
translations  from  English  into  those  languages  and  from 
them  into  English,  usually  feel  that  they  have  no  use  for 
the  common  treatises  on  English  Grammar.  Yet  we  have 
many  books  which  even  scholars  may  examine  Avith  profit, 
and  which  students  in  general  would  find  very  useful. t     It 

*  De  Quincey  on  Style,  p.  105. 

f  A  Professor  in  one  of  our  leading  American  Universities, 
though  a,  man  of  vast  acquirements,  had  never  studied  German.  In 
history,  in  general  literature,  even  in  metaphysical  philosophy,  he 
was  content  with  what  could  be  found  in  Greek  and  Latin,  in  French 
and  English.  But  at  length  determining  to  make  a  thorough  study 
of  English  Grammar,  he  was  compelled  to  learn  German. 

J  For  example,  Angus'  Hand-Book  of  the  English  Tongue  is  ex- 
cellent. Add  to  it  Trench  on  the  Study  of  Words,  and  his  "Eng- 
lish, Past  and  Present."  And  by  all  means  read  Campbell's  Phi- 
losophy of  Rhetoric,  Book  II,  chap.  1-4,  and  Book  III,  chap.  4-5, 
in  which  he  treats  of  grammar.  Every  student  ought  to  keep  con- 
stantly within  reach,  and  very  freely  to  consult,  the  latest  edition 
of  Webster's  Dictionary,  unabridged,  the  definitions  in  which  are 
exceedingly  instructive,  while  the  orthography  is  less  objectionable 
than  in  former  editions.  One  who  wishes  to  get  some  knowledge 
of  the  modern  science  of  language  in  its  bearings  on  English, 
should  read  Whitney's  "  Language,  and  the  Study  of  Language,"  and 


328      GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    STYLE. 

is  true  that  books  on  grammar  are  not  everything  in  acquir- 
ing command  of  tlie  language,  nor  the  main  thing.  There 
are  men  among  us  who  have  studied  no  such  books,  nor  any 
other  language,  and  yet  who  speak  and  write  English  with 
correctness  and  even  with  force  and  beauty.  The  great 
works  of  Greek  poetry  and  history  were  written  before  any 
treatises  on  grammar  existed.  These  facts  remind  us  that 
we  must  find  elsewhere  the  principal  means  of  improvement 
in  style,  but  they  by  no  means  prove  that  grammars  are 
useless.  We  have  to  learn  the  usage  of  the  language,  and 
grammars  undertake  to  present  this  usage  in  a  systematic 
and  convenient  form.  They  show  us  our  faults,  and  warn 
us  where  there  is  danger;  they  set  us  to  observing  language, 
and  reflecting  upon  it.  The  rules  of  grammar  have  most 
effectually  done  their  work  when  conformity  to  them  has 
become  habitual,  and  we  need  the  rules  no  longer — yea, 
when  we  have  so  fully  entered  into  the  principles  involved, 
that  upon  occasion  we  may  even  violate  a  rule.*  Correct 
habits  may  be  formed,  and  right  principles  comprehended, 
without  books  of  grammar,  but  more  rapidly  and  surely 
with  them,  provided  we  use  them  only  as  helps,  and  aim  to 
go  deeper  than  they  can  carry  us.  As  to  this  whole  matter 
of  studying  English  Grammar,  two  practical  errors  widely 
prevail,  and  greatly  need  to  be  corrected.  Men  who  have 
been  to  College  are  apt  to  think  they  have  no  need  to  study 
their  own  language  at  all,  and  especially  no  need  of  con- 
sulting books  on  the  subject  —  the  latter  part  of  this  opin- 

Max  Muller's  two  volumes  on  the  Science  of  Language,  and  then 
take  Marsh's  Lectures  on  the  English  Language.  Alford's  "The 
Queen's  English,"  and  the  other  books  and  numerous  Magazine 
articles  to  which  it  has  given  rise,  are  usually  entertaining  and 
suggestive,  but  tend  to  hyper-criticism,  often  magnifying  trifles 
and  dogmatizing  about  doubtful  questions,  to  the  neglect  of  broad 
views  and  fixed  principles. 

♦  Comp.  as  to  the  rules  of  Rhetoric,  above,  Introduction,  §  4. 


GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    STYLE.      329 

ion  being  a  mistake,  and  the  former  a  very  great  mistake. 
On  the  other  hand,  men  who  have  had  fewer  educational 
advantages  are  in  danger  of  supposing  that  without  sys- 
tematic instruction  they  can  do  nothing  to  improve  their 
style,  or  else  that  after  studying  a  book  or  two  on  English 
Grammar,  they  have  nothing  more  to  do.* 

It  may  be  remarked  in  general  that  a  preacher  ought  to 
employ  pure  English,  according  to  current  use  ;  not  quickly 
catching  up  the  novelties  of  the  street  or  the  daily  paper, 
and  not  introducing  those  archaisms  with  which  he  is 
familiar  from  commerce  with  old  books,  but  which  his 
hearers  would  not  readily  understand.  He  should  speak 
the  English  of  general  use,  not  employing  local  peculiarities 
of  phrase  except  for  special  reason ;  but  he  should  retain 
genuine  English  idiom,  even  wliere  superficial  critics  attempt 
to  displace  it.  The  preacher  must  never  invent  words. 
Madame  de  Stael  says,  "  There  is  in  general  no  surer 
symptom  of  barrenness  of  ideas,  than  the  invention  of 
words,"  —  a  remark  which  may  at  least  be  set  over  against 
the  notion  that  such  invention  is  a  symptom  of  originality. 
And  he  should  not,  save  in  very  peculiar  cases,  employ 
words  or  phrases  from  foreign  languages.  It  was  once  very 
common,  and  thought  to  be  very  appropriate,  for  a  minister 
to  quote  much  Latin  and  Greek  in  his  sermons.  Even 
Wesley's  sermons  abound  in  such  quotations,  though  he 
preached  mainly  to  the  common  people.  It  is  a  sign  of 
improved  taste  that  this  is  no  longer  the  practice.  A 
speaker  must  now  use  his  knowledge  of  other  languages 
only  as  giving  him  increased  power  over  his  ov/n  language. 
Even  where  one  refers  to  the  original  Scriptures,  it  is  very 
rarely  proper  to  mention  the  Greek  or  Hebrew  word. 

2.  The  study  of  literature  perhaps  contributes  still  more 
to  the  improvement  of  style,  than  the  direct  study  of  lan- 
guage.    From  reading  we  gain  much  in  the  knowledge  of 

*  On  the  importance  of  studying  Anglo-Saxon,  see  below,  chap.  2. 
28* 


330      GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    STYLE. 

language,  especially  as  to  richness  of  vocabulary,  fulness  of 
expression/^  But  more.  It  is  chiefly  by  reading  that  we 
form  our  literary  taste  —  a  matter  of  unspeakable  impor- 
tance. Cicero  makes  one  of  his  characters  say,  referring  to 
Greek  literature:  "As,  ^vhen  I  walk  in  the  sun,  even 
though  I  walk  for  another  reason,  my  complexion  is  yet 
colored  ;  so,  when  I  have  read  these  books,  I  feel  that  my 
style  of  speaking  is  as  it  were  colored  by  their  influence."  f 
And  what  Shakspeare  mournfully  says,  is  true  in  this  better 

sense  also, 

*'!My  nature  is  subdued 
To  what  it  works  in,  like  the  dyer's  hand." 

To  bathe  our  minds  in  choice  literature  till  they  become 
imbued  with  correct  principles  of  style,  to  nourish  them 
with  good  learning  till  our  taste  grows  healthy,  so  as  to  dis- 
cern quickly  and  surely  between  good  and  bad,  is  a  pro- 
cess surpassingly  profitable  in  its  results,  and  in  itself  de- 
lightful. 

And  not  only  do  we  need  to  cultivate  good  literature  for 
its  positive  benefits,  but  also  to  counteract  certain  evil  in- 
fluences of  great  power.  Few  among  us  have  learned  from 
childhood  to  speak  graceful  and  forcible  English,  few  in- 
deed to  speak  it  with  bare  correctness.  Mother-tongue  is 
often  to  a  great  extent  nurse's  tongue;  and  in  this  country 
that  usually  means  the  broken  and  rude  English  of  the 
negroes,  or  the  brogue  of  the  most  ignorant  Irish.  From 
our  childish  associates  we  seldom  gained  much  in  the  way 
of  grammatical  correctness  or  good  taste.  And  as  men 
grow  up  and  go  on  in  life,  so  large  a  part  of  what  they 
read  in  newspapers,  and  of  what  they  hear  in  conversation 
and  even  in  public  speaking,  is  in  a  vicious  style,  that  they 

*  Kossuth  derived  his  wonderful  knowledge  of  English  from  the 
study  of  Shakspeare,  while  in  prison. 
f  De  Orat.  II,  15,  16. 


GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    STYLE.      331 

inevitably  feel  the  effect.  Besides  the  more  obvious  errors, 
as  to  pronunciation  and  syntax,  which  are  too  often  com- 
mitted by  cultivated  speakers,  there  results  from  these  in- 
fluences a  more  subtle  and  more  serious  injury  to  taste, 
■which  only  a  continued  application  to  the  best  literature 
can  remedy  and  prevent.  De  Quinccy  points  out  that  the 
immense  multiplication  of  newspapers  has  injured  our  style 
of  conversation.  Everybody  reads  them  constantly,  and 
their  writers  too  often  use  the  most  bookish  and  inflated 
language  in  treating  of  common  things.  One  who  wishes  to 
form  a  good  style  would  do  well  to  select  his  newspapers, 
secular  and  religious,  with  reference  to  this,  as  well  as  to 
other  considerations.  The  style  of  preaching  will  always 
naturally,  and  to  a  great  extent  properly,  share  the  pecu- 
liarities which  mark  the  literature  of  the  day.  When  this 
exhibits  bad  taste,  as  is  so  often  true  now  of  newspaper- 
writing  and  public  speaking,  we  must  correct  the  evil  by 
intimacy  with  the  truly  great  authors,  of  our  own  and  of 
former  times. 

It  is  delightful  to  think  how  many  good  authors  there 
are,  in  English  and  in  other  languages.  Our  religious  liter- 
ature, both  sermons  and  other  works,  presents  noble  speci- 
mens of  style,  in  which  one  may  at  the  same  time  nourish 
the  intellect,  warm  the  heart,  and  refine  the  taste,  and 
among  which  he  may  select  such  as  will  exert  the  kind  of 
influence  he  particularly  needs.  The  great  French  preach- 
ers, from  Bossuet  to  Monod,  with  such  Americans  as  J.  M. 
Mason  and  R.  Fuller,  form  admirable  examples  of  passion 
combined  with  elegance.  Baxter  is  remarkable  for  direct- 
ness and  pungency,  Bunyan  for  homely  and  charming 
simplicity.  If  one's  style  is  dry  and  barren,  he  may  read 
Chrysostom,  Jeremy  Taylor,  Chalmers,  or  Melville.  For  a 
grand  model  of  style,  which,  like  some  young  Grecian 
athlete,  stands  glorious  in  disciplined  strength  and  manly 
beauty,  we  must  go  to  Robert  Hall,  his  writings  as  well  as 


332      GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    STYLE. 

his  sermons.  And  if  the  influence  of  Hall  should  tend  to 
produce  monotonous  elevation,  never  coming  down  to  com- 
mon phrases,  nor  coming  close  with  personal  applications, 
the  exact  remedy  is  to  he  found  in  familiarity  with  Spur- 
geon.  But  any  such  indication  of  specimens  must  be 
unjust,  if  not  misleading,  as  regards  the  many  that  are 
omitted.  The  important  matter  is,  that  one  should  not 
read  at  hap-hazard ;  that  taking  account  of  his  mental 
constitution,  his  previous  training  and  present  stage  of 
development,  the  particular  tendencies  as  to  thinking  and 
stvle  of  wdiich  he  is  now  conscious,  he  should  select, 
according  to  the  best  accessible  information,  such  works  as 
will  best  meet  his  actual  wants. 

Preachers  ought  to  derive  very  great  benefit  in  point  of 
style,  from  their  constant  reading  and  minute  study  of  the 
English  Bible.  The  Scriptures  embrace  almost  every 
species  of  style,  and  each  with  many  varieties.  And  the 
current  English  translation,  though  some  of  its  phrases 
have  become  nearly  obsolete,  presents  the  English  language 
in  its  most  admirable  form.  It  dates  from  the  golden  age 
of  English  literature,  and  deserves,  in  an  eminent  degree, 
the  eulogy  which  Spenser  passed  upon  Chaucer,  as  a  "  w^ell 
of  English  undefyled." 

Besides  the  common  ground  of  general  literature,  which 
no  one,  of  whatever  special  calling,  can  afford  to  neglect, 
preachers  may  learn  much  from  the  great  secular  orators, 
even  as  lawyers  and  statesmen  often  diligently  study  the 
great  preachers.  And  this  is  true,  not  merely  for  the 
beginner,  but  even  more  for  the  practised  speaker.  To  see 
the  same  principles  carried  out  in  material  and  for  purposes 
quite  different  from  his  own,  will  illustrate  those  principles 
afresh,  and  will  prevent  his  becoming  formal  in  arrange- 
ment and  monotonous  in  style.  In  oratory  and  in  general 
literature,  the  Greek  language  and  our  own  English  are 
-ich  beyond  rivalry.     To   these  let  the  preacher  mainly 


GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS     ON    STYLE.       333 

address  himself,  in  youth  and  in  age,  and  literature  will 
shed  on  his  intellectual  and  sesthetical  culture  its  "se- 
lectest  influence."  But  let  not  the  young  student  sub- 
mit himself  to  the  authority  of  any  writer  as  a  perfect 
standard,  nor  be  repelled  from  some  of  the  greatest  by 
their  manifest  blemishes.  "  There  is  no  writer  who  has  not 
some  faults,  and  faults  of  taste  are  perhaps  those  the  most 
common  to  the  highest  aiid  the  lowest  order  of  writers. 
The  taste  of  Shakspeare  and  Milton  is  not  always  unim- 
peachable. But  it  is  to  the  greatest  writers  that  Adam 
Smith's  exclamation  applies  —  *  How  many  great  qualities 
must  that  writer  possess  who  can  thus  render  his  very  faults 
agreeable ! '  If  we  desire  to  find  a  writer  without  fault,  we 
must  not  look  for  him  among  the  greatest  writers."  * 
Augustine  had  been  in  his  youth  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  He 
knew  the  folly  of  that  artificial  instruction  in  style  and 
delivery  which  there  have  always  been  teachers  to  recom- 
mend, and  he  knew  that  even  a  just  rhetorical  system  is 
but  a  help  to  something  higher.  He  says :  "  Moreover,  I 
enjoin  it  upon  him  who  would  combine  eloquence  with 
wisdom,  by  which  he  will  certainly  become  more  eflfective, 
to  read  and  listen  to  the  eloquent,  and  imitate  them  in 
exercises,  rather  than  apply  to  the  teachers  of  the  rhetorical 
art ;  provided  those  whom  he  hears  and  reads  were,  or  are 
now,  justly  celebrated,  not  merely  for  their  eloquence,  but 
also  for  their  wisdom."  f 

It  should  be  added  that  conversation,  especially  that  of 
intelligent  women,  may  also  furnish  admirable  and  influ- 
ential examples  of  clear,  sprightly,  varied,  and  every  way 
attractive  style.  So  too  with  Letters.  "Would  you  desire 
at  this  day  to  read  our  noble  language  in  its  native  beauty, 
picturesque  from  idiomatic  propriety,  racy  in  its  phrase- 
ology, delicate  yet  sinewy  in  its  composition  —  steal   the 

■5^  Bulwer,  On  Style,  Caxtoniana,  I,  131. 
t  De  Doct.  Christ.  IV. 


334      GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    O  N^    STYLE. 

mail-bags,  and  break  open  all  the  letters  in  female  hand- 
writing." *  Cicero's  Epistles  are  for  most  men  far  bettel 
examples  of  style  than  Cicero's  Orations.  And  if  to  an 
acquaintance  with  Bacon,  Milton's  prose,  Barrow  and 
Burke,  one  should  add  a  familiarity  with  some  of  the  finest 
Letters,  he  would  see  the  English  language  in  all  its  most 
prodigal  strength  and  splendor,  and  in  all  its  most  flexible 
grace  and  delicate  beauty.f 

3.  But  the  chief  means  of  improvement  in  style  is  care* 
ful  practice,  in  writing  and  speaking.  Not  mere  practice 
without  care,  for  this  will  develop  and  confirm  what  is 
faulty  as  well  as  Avhat  is  good. 

In  written  composition,  it  is  very  unwise,  although  very 
common,  to  neglect  details.  If  a  man  spells  badly,  he 
should  set  himself  vigorously  to  correct  the  fault,  which 
usually  requires  nothing  but  a  little  system  and  persever- 
ance.J  To  take  some  pains  in  this  direction  is  worth  while, 
not  only  for  the  sake  of  removing  a  literary  blemish,  but 
because  accuracy  in  detail  is  apt  to  react  profitably  upon 
our  mental  habits,  and  also  to  increase  our  love  for  the 

*  De  Quincey  on  Style,  p.  77. 

f  Holcombe's  Literature  in  Letters  (New  York,  Appleton)  is  a 
delightful  volume,  containing  a  choice  collection  of  English  and 
American  Letters,  classified  and  with  all  necessary  annotation. 

X  Let  him  have  whatever  he  writes  examined  by  some  accurate 
speller,  and  make  lists  of  the  words  corrected,  putting  them  down 
as  they  ought  to  be,  and  frequently  running  over  the  growing  list, 
with  the  resolve,  at  every  step,  that  this  error,  and  this,  shall  occur 
no  more ;  further,  let  him  habitually  consult  a  dictionary  when 
doubtful  as  to  the  spelling  of  a  word ;  and  moreover,  he  must  begin 
to  notice  spelling  in  the  books  and  periodicals  he  reads,  and  to  take 
interest  in  disputed  questions.  We  often  find  it  harder  to  correct 
confirmed  habits  about  trifles  than  about  more  important  matters, 
because  the  former  do  not  awaken  an  interested  and  watchful  atten- 
tion.    The  plan  proposed  will  meet  this  difficulty. 


GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    STYLE.      335 

work  of  composition.     Some  one  has  said  that  there  never 
was  a  great  sculptor  who  did  not  love  to  chip  the  marble. 
And  if  spelling  be  worth  attention,  so  is  punctuation,  though 
this  is  still  more  commonly  neglected.     Punctuation  indi- 
cates the  relation  of  the  parts  of  a  sentence  to  each  other. 
The  only  real  difficulty  in  punctuating  properly  is  the  diffi- 
culty in  determining  the  true  relation  of  clauses,  and  he 
who  does  not  mark  the  points  is  apt  to  neglect,  more  than 
he  is  aware,  the  structure  of  his  sentences.     Aristotle  urges 
that  we  should  write  in  a  style  easy  to  point,*  and  it  is 
certainly  very  desirable  to  make  the  sense  unmistakable, 
apart  from  punctuation.     But  the  inferior  flexibility  of 
construction,  and  the  comparative  lack  of  particles,  makes 
this  much   more  difficult  in  English  than  in  Greek  and 
many  other  languages ;  so  that  with  us  punctuation  is  par- 
ticularly important.     It  will  be  evident,  too,  that  every 
man's  punctuation  must  be  to  some  extent  his  own,  as  it 
indicates  his  mode  of   constructing  sentences.     Of    this, 
Chalmers  is  a  good  example,  in  his  infrequent  use  of  the 
comma.     The  dash,  which  has  of  late  become  so  common, 
is  convenient  to  indicate  a  break  in  the  sentence,  whether 
an  interruption,  so  as  to  insert  something  akin  to  a  paren- 
thesis, or  an  abrupt  transition  to  something  related  to  what 
precedes,  but  not  joined  to  it  by  strict  grammatical  connec- 
tion.    It  is  thus  an  affectation  to  abjure  the  dash  altogether, 
as  some  propose  to  do,  but  it  should  be  used  only  for  a  dis- 
tinct and  positive  reason.     Many  good  writers  now  use  it 
to  save  the  trouble  of  deciding  what  more  definite  pointing 
is  appropriate,  —  certainly  a  very  slothful  fa^ion ;    and 
some  of  the  best  writers,  as  Brougham  and  Bulwer,  intro- 
duce the  dash  so  often  as  to  break  many  of  their  sentences 
into  disjointed  fragments.     In  practical  attention  to  punc- 
tuation, we  must  endeavor  to  mas- er  the  principles  involved, 
the  fundamental  significance  which  usage  has  assigned  to 
*  Rhet.  Ill,  6,  6. 


336      GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    8TTLE. 

the  several  points,  and  then  use  them  according  to  our  own 
meaning,  and  not  according  to  the  stiff  and  anbending 
rules  which  are  so  often  laid  down.  And  it  should  be 
noticed  that  although  forbidden  by  many  of  the  books, 
punctuation  may  be  sometimes  employed,  apart  from  gram- 
matical relations,  to  indicate  the  rhythmical  movement  of 
the  successive  parts  of  a  sentence.* 

And  so  as  to  all  the  details  of  grammar.  Campbell  tells 
of  a  preacher  who  was  consulted  by  a  friend  that  had  a 
mind  to  publish,  "  whether  he  thought  it  befitting  a  writer 
on  religion  to  attend  to  such  little  matters  as  grammatical 
correctness,"  and  who  answered,  "  By  all  means.  It  is 
much  better  to  write  so  as  to  make  a  critic  turn  Christian, 
than  so  as  to  make  a  Christian  turn  critic."  f 

There  can  be  no  question  that  grammatical  accuracy  is 
an  object  worthy  of  earnest  pursuit.  The  young  preacher 
who  finds  himself  particularly  deficient  in  this  respect, 
ought,  besides  such  study  of  treatises  on  grammar  as  we 
have  already  urged,  to  go  through  some  good  work  on 
Composition,  laboriously  writing  the  exercises.  If  nothing 
else  were  gained,  it  is  much  to  be  relieved  from  all  fear  of 
committing  blunders  that  would  be  ridiculed. 

But  while  attentive  to  the  details  of  composition,  one 
must  be  chiefly  occupied  with  the  thought ;  and  in  order 
to  this,  composition  as  a  mere  exercise  must  more  and  more 
give  place  to  writing  with  a  real  interest,  with  some  practical 
aim.  In  all  such  writing,  one  should  become  possessed 
with  the  subject,  and  then  write  as  rapidly  as  is  consistent 
with  perspicuous  and  forcible  expression,  leaving  minute 

*  A  good  practical  discussion  of  punctuation  may  be  found  in 
Angus'  Hand-Book  of  the  English  Tongue,  and  also,  with  copious 
exercises,  in  Quackenbos'  Composition  and  Rhetoric.  Let  no  man 
think  it  beneath  his  dignity  to  use  good  school-books  for  such  a 
purpose. 

t  On  Pulpit  Eloq.,  Lect.  III. 


GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    STYLE.      337 

corrections  to  be  made  afterward.  But  lie  must  be  sure  to 
make  the  corrections.  Thought  once  cast  into  a  mould  is 
apt  to  harden  very  soon,  and  any  considerable  alteration 
is  then  a  difficult  and  laborious  task.  Sometimes  a  whole 
paragraph  must  be  thrown  back  into  the  furnace  of  the 
minci,  and  fused  anew,  in  order  to  remove  a  single  flaw  in 
one  sentence.  Think  of  John  Foster,  toiling  over  a  sen- 
tence for  two  hours,  determined  to  have  it  right. 

A  most  valuable  means  of  improvement  in  command  of 
language  and  style  in  general,  is  written  translation  into 
English  from  other  languages.  This  tests  and  develops, 
in  a  peculiar  manner,  our  knowledge  of  English.  When 
attempting  to  express  our  ov;n  thoughts,  we  have  the  idea 
at  first  only  in  a  dim,  shifting,  nebulous  form  ;  and  in  strug- 
gling to  find  the  exact  expression,  we  may  unconsciously 
change  the  idea  into  something  else  for  which  fit  expression 
presents  itself.  But  in  translating,  —  not  merely  putting 
word  for  word,  like  a  school-boy,  but  getting  the  exact  idea 
conveyed  by  a  sentence,  and  then  seeking  the  exact 
expression  for  that  idea  in  English,  —  no  such  substitution 
or  shifting  can  take  place.  The  thought  stands  fixed  in  the 
other  language,  with  the  peculiar  shape  and  color  which 
that  language  gives  it,  and  we  must  find  English  to  express 
it,  or  must  know  that  our  effort  to  do  so  has  failed.  Thus 
careful  translation  is  in  one  respect  a  better  exercise  than 
original  composition.  It  is  obvious  that  a  similar  benefit 
will  be  derived,  though  in  a  less  degree,  from  oral  transla- 
tion. It  is  well  known  that  William  Pitt  was  carefully 
trained  by  his  father  to  off'-hand  translation  from  Greek 
and  other  languages,  and  that  he  believed  himself  to  have 
derived  immense  advantage  from  it. 

In   addition   to  writing,   one   must   studiously  practise 

speaking,  in   order  to  form  his   speaking   style.     A  man 

skilled  in  both,  may  closely  imitate  in  writing  the  style  of 

speaking,  but  th6  two    are   really  distinct,  and  in   some 

29 


338      GENERAL    0BSEEVAT1)NS    ON    STYLE. 

respects  quite  different.  Let  one  speak  much  that  has 
been  carefully  prepared,  though  not  written  ;  and  speak 
sometimes,  as  in  social  meetings,  upon  the  strong  impulse 
of  the  moment.  Let  him  always  have  a  practical  purpose, 
and  throw  himself  into  an  effort,  not  to  make  a  discourse, 
but  to  accomplish  his  object.  Let  him  closely  observe  his 
hearers,  and  learn  to  perceive  when  they  understand  and 
are  impressed.  He  will  thus  become  able  to  judge  when  to 
be  diffuse,  and  when  rapid,  and  will  acquire  the  directness 
of  address,  the  power  of  constant  movement  towards  a 
fixed  point,  the  passionate  energy  and  unstudied  grace,  the 
flexibility  and  variety  which  characterize  the  speaking 
style.*  And  he  who  aims  at  skill  in  extemporaneous 
speaking,  must  give  special  attention  to  his  style  in  con- 
versation, so  that  the  difference  between  his  more  elevated 
and  his  more  familiar  style  may  be  a  difference  in  degree 
and  not  in  kind. 

It  may  be  added  that  every  writer  or  speaker  should 
cultivate  variety  of  style.  A  model  of  excellence  in  this 
respect  may  be  seen  in  the  correspondence  and  the  sermons 
of  J.  Addison  Alexander. 

After  all  that  has  been  said  or  that  can  be  said  as  to 
style,  no  one  should  imagine  that  he  need  only  seek  to 
acquire  power  of  expression,  and  may  give  little  attention 
to  thought.  Some  young  men  fall  into  this  error,  and  it  is 
simply  fatal.  "  Let  there  be  care  about  words,"  says  Quin 
tilian,  "  )ut  solicitude  about  things." 

*Comp.  on  the  style  of  extemporaneous  speaking,  Part  IV,  chap 
1,23,2. 


PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE.  339 


CHAPTER   11. 

PERSPICUITY   OF   STYLE.* 

11H£  most  important  property  of  style  is  perspicuity. 
-  St}  le  is  excellent  when,  like  the  atmosphere,  it  shows 
the  thought,  but  itself  is  not  seen.  Yet  this  comparison, 
and  the  term  perspicuity  which  was  derived  from  it,  are 
both  inadequate,  for  good  style  is  like  stereoscopic  glasses, 
which,  transparent  themselves,  give  form  and  body  and 
distinct  outline  to  that  which  they  exhibit.f 

A  certain  grand-looking  obscurity  is  often  pleasing  to 
some  hearers  and  readers,  who  suppose  that  it  shows  vast 
learning,  or  great  originality, J  or  immense  profundity. 
To  treat  subjects  in  this  fashion  is  no  new  thing.  Quin- 
tilian  says  it  was  not  new  in  his  day,  for  that  he  found 
mention  in  Livy  of  a  teacher  who  used  to  direct  his  pupils 
to  darken  the  idea.  He  adds  a  witticism  of  some  one 
whose  hearers  complained  that  they  did  not  understand, 
and  who  replied,  "  So  much  the  better ;  I  did  not  even 
understand  it  myself,"  ||  and  elsewhere  speaks  of  men  who 

*  The  best  classification  of  the  leading  properties  of  style  is  that 
adopted  from  Campbell  by  Whately  and  others,  viz,  perspicuity, 
energy,  and  elegance.  Shedd  substitutes  plainness,  force,  and 
beauty,  and  Day  uses  clearness,  energy,  and  beauty ;  but  in  both 
cases  more  is  lost  by  the  change  than  is  gained.  Blair  (following 
Quintilian)  treats  only  of  perspicuity  and  ornament,  and  his  own 
style  is  clear  and  neat,  but  nerveless. 

On  perspicuity,  consult  especially  Campbell,  and  Herbert  Spen- 
cer's Essay  on  Style. 

f  Comp.  Shedd,  p.  59. 

X  Comp.  on  original  ty,  Part  I,  chap.  4,  §  3. 

II  Quint.  VIII,  2,  18 


340  PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE. 

think  thfmselves  talented  because  it  requires  talent  to 
understand  them.  M.  Hue  says  that  in  the  Lama  Convents, 
where  the  Buddhist  professors  lecture  to  their  pupils,  the 
more  obscure  and  unintelligible  their  sayings,  the  more 
sublime  they  are  reckoned.  Alas  !  that  preachers  of  the 
gospel  are  not  always  proof  against  this  pitiful  temptation. 

A  preacher  is  more  solemnly  bound  than  any  other 
person,  to  make  his  language  perspicuous.  This  is  very 
important  in  wording  a  law,  in  writing  a  title-deed,  or  a 
physician's  prescription,  but  still  more  important  in  pro- 
claiming the  Word  of  GoVi,  w^ords  of  eternal  life. 

"  The  thoughts  which  the  religious  teacher  presents  to  the  common 
mind  should  go  straight  to  the  understanding.  Everything  that 
covers  up  and  envelops  the  truth  should  be  stripped  off  from  it,  so 
that  the  bare  reality  may  be  seen.  There  is  prodigious  power  in 
this  plainness  of  presentation.  It  is  the  power  of  actual  contact. 
A  plain  writer,  or  speaker,  makes  the  truth  and  the  mind  impinge 
upon  each  other.  When  the  style  is  plain,  the  mind  of  the  hearer 
experiences  the  sensation  of  being  touched  ;   and  this  sensation  is 

always  impressive,  for  a  man  starts  when  he  is  touched The 

preacher  should  toil  after  this  property  of  style,  as  he  would  toil 
after  virtue  itself.  He  should  constantly  strive,  first  of  all,  to  ex- 
hibit his  thoughts  plainly.  Whether  he  shall  add  force  to  plain- 
ness, and  beauty  to  force,  are  matters  to  be  considered  afterwards. 
....  The  public  is,  at  the  present  time,  too  eager  after  striking 
externals,  for  its  own  good.  It  demands  brilliancy  before  plain- 
ness, without  suflBcient  regard  for  that  basis  of  strong  sense  which 
must  ever  support  this  quality,  in  order  that  it  may  have  true  value. 
The  preacher  is  consequently  tempted  to  yield  to  this  false  taste  of 

the  ill-educated,  and  to  become  like  the  public In  the  midst 

of  all  this  clamor  for  fine  writing  and  florid  style,  he   should  be  a 

resolute  man,  and  dare  to  be  a  plain   writer The  preacher 

•whose  head  is  right,  and  whose  conscience  is  right,  will  soon  come 
to  possess  a  love  for  this  plainness."  * 

It  is  also  true  that  a  preacher  has  greater  difficulty  than 
any  other  class  of  speakers  in  making  his  style  perspicuous 
to  ell  his  hearers,  for  no  others  speak  to  so  heterogeneous 

*  Sbedd,  Horn.  p.  63-9. 


PERSP.CUITY    OF    STYLE.  341 

an  audience,  including  persons  of  both  sexes,  of  every  age 
from  early  childhood,  and  of  every  grade  of  intellect  and 
culture.  But  this  difficulty,  when  most  deeply  felt,  should 
but  stimulate  to  diligent  and  pains -taking  effort.  For 
what  is  the  use  of  preaching,  unless  we  may  hope  to  do 
good  ?  And  what  good  can  be  done,  save  in  proportion  as 
we  are  understood?  Pretentious  obscurity  may  excite  a 
poor  admiration,  unmeaning  prettiness  may  give  a  certain 
pleasure,  mere  vociferation,  —  like  Bottom's  part,  "  nothing 
but  roaring,"  —  may  affect  some  people's  nerves,  but  only 
truth,  and  truth  that  is  understood,  can  bring  real  benefit. 
Moreover,  something  worse  may  happen  than  the  failure 
to  do  good  ;  we  may  do  harm.  Some  hearers  are  repelled 
and  disgusted  by  obscurity.  Others  are  misled.  It  is  a 
mournful  thing  to  tliink  of,  but  one  of  not  infrequent 
occurrence,  that  men  should  so  misunderstand  us,  as  to 
take  what  we  meant  for  medicine  and  convert  it  into  poison. 
As  w^e  love  men's  souls  we  must  strive  to  prevent  so  dread- 
ful a  result.  One  cannot  expect,  as  Q,uintilian  already 
remarks,  "that  the  hearer  will  be  so  intent  upon  under- 
standing as  to  cast  upon  the  darkness  of  the  speech  a  light 
from  his  own  intelligence.  What  we  say  must  be  made  so 
clear  that  it  will  pour  into  his  mind  as  the  sun  pours  into 
the  eyes,  even  when  they  are  not  directed  toward  it.  We 
must  take  care,  not  that  it  shall  be  possible  for  him  to 
understand,  but  that  it  shall  be  utterly  impossible  for  him 
not  to  understand."*  The  German  philosopher  Fichte 
wrote  a  treatise  with  this  title;  "An  account  clear  as  the 
sun,  of  the  real  nature  of  my  philosophy ;  an  attempt  to 
compel  the  reader  to  understand."  f  None  but  a  very  self- 
confident  man  would  put  forth  such  a  title;  but  it  indicates 
what  every  teacher  of  men  ought  to  aim  at,  not  arrogantly, 
but  resolutely,  —  to  compel  the  reader  or  hearer  to  under- 
stand. 

*  Quint,  nil,  2,  23.  f  Quoted  by  Shedd,  p.  72. 

29* 


340  PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE. 

think  thfinselves  talented  because  it  requires  talent  to 
understand  them.  M.  Hue  says  that  in  the  Lama  Convents, 
where  the  Buddhist  professors  lecture  to  their  pupils,  the 
more  obscure  and  unintelligible  their  sayings,  the  more 
sublime  they  are  reckoned.  Alas !  that  preachers  of  the 
gospel  are  not  always  proof  against  this  pitiful  temptation. 

A  preacher  is  more  solemnly  bound  than  any  other 
person,  to  make  his  language  perspicuous.  This  is  very 
important  in  wording  a  law,  in  writing  a  title-deed,  or  a 
physician's  prescription,  but  still  more  important  in  pro- 
claiming the  Word  of  Gotl,  words  of  eternal  life. 

"  The  thoughts  which  the  religious  teacher  presents  to  the  common 
mind  should  go  straight  to  the  understanding.  Everything  that 
covers  up  and  envelops  the  truth  should  be  stripped  off  from  it,  so 
that  the  bare  reality  may  be  seen.  There  is  prodigious  power  in 
this  plainness  of  presentation.  It  is  the  power  of  actual  contact. 
A  plain  writer,  or  speaker,  makes  the  truth  and  the  mind  impinge 
upon  each  other.  When  the  style  is  plain,  the  mind  of  the  hearer 
experiences  the  sensation  of  being  touched  ;   and  this  sensation  is 

always  impressive,  for  a  man  starts  when  he  is  touched The 

preacher  should  toil  after  this  property  of  style,  as  he  would  toil 
after  virtue  itself.  He  should  constantly  strive,  first  of  all,  to  ex- 
hibit his  thoughts  plainly.  Whether  he  shall  add  force  to  plain- 
ness, and  beauty  to  force,  are  matters  to  be  considered  afterwards. 
....  The  public  is,  at  the  present  time,  too  eager  after  striking 
externals,  for  its  own  good.  It  demands  brilliancy  before  plain- 
ness, without  sufficient  regard  for  that  basis  of  strong  sense  which 
must  ever  support  this  quality,  in  order  that  it  may  have  true  value. 
The  preacher  is  consequently  tempted  to  yield  to  this  false  taste  of 

the  ill-educated,  and  to  become  like  the  public In  the  midst 

of  all  this  clamor  for  fine  writing  and  florid  style,  he   should  be  a 

resolute  man,  and  dare  to  be  a  plain   writer The  preacher 

-whose  head  is  right,  and  whose  conscience  is  right,  will  soon  come 
to  possess  a  love  for  this  plainness."  * 

It  is  also  true  that  a  preacher  has  greater  difficulty  than 
any  other  class  of  speakers  in  making  his  style  perspicuous 
to  ell  his  hearers,  for  no  others  speak  to  so  heterogeneous 

*  Sbedd,  Horn.  p.  6.3-9. 


PERSP.CUITY    OF    STYLE.  341 

an  audience,  including  persons  of  both  sexes,  of  every  age 
from  early  childhood,  and  of  every  grade  of  intellect  and 
culture.  But  this  difficulty,  when  most  deeply  felt,  should 
but  stimulate  to  diligent  and  pains -taking  effort.  For 
what  is  the  use  of  preaching,  unless  we  may  hope  to  do 
good  ?  And  what  good  can  be  done,  save  in  proportion  as 
we  are  understood  ?  Pretentious  obscurity  may  excite  a 
poor  admiration,  unmeaning  prettiness  may  give  a  certain 
pleasure,  mere  vociferation,  —  like  Bottom's  part,  "  nothing 
but  roaring,"  —  may  affect  some  people's  nerves,  but  only 
truth,  and  truth  that  is  understood,  can  bring  real  benefit. 
Moreover,  something  worse  may  happen  than  the  failure 
to  do  good  ;  we  may  do  harm.  Some  hearers  are  repelled 
and  disgusted  by  obscurity.  Others  are  misled.  II  is  a 
mournful  thing  to  think  of,  but  one  of  not  infrequent 
occurrence,  that  men  should  so  misunderstand  us,  as  to 
take  what  we  meant  for  medicine  and  convert  it  into  poison. 
As  we  love  men's  souls  we  must  strive  to  prevent  so  dread- 
ful a  result.  One  cannot  expect,  as  Quintilian  already 
remarks,  "that  the  hearer  will  be  so  intent  upon  under- 
standing as  to  cast  upon  the  darkness  of  the  speech  a  light 
from  his  own  intelligence.  What  we  say  must  be  made  so 
clear  that  it  will  pour  into  his  mind  as  the  sun  pours  into 
the  eyes,  even  when  they  are  not  directed  toward  it.  We 
must  take  care,  not  that  it  shall  be  possible  for  him  to 
understand,  but  that  it  shall  be  utterly  impossible  for  him 
not  to  understand."*  The  German  philosopher  Fichte 
wrote  a  treatise  with  this  title ;  "  An  account  clear  as  the 
sun,  of  the  real  nature  of  my  philosophy ;  an  attempt  to 
compel  the  reader  to  understand."  f  None  but  a  very  self- 
confident  man  would  put  forth  such  a  title;  but  it  indicates 
what  every  teacher  of  men  ought  to  aim  at,  not  arrogantly, 
but  resolutely,  —  to  compel  the  reader  or  hearer  to  under- 
stand. 

*  Quint.  VIII,  2,  23.  f  Quoted  by  Shedd,  p.  72. 

29* 


314  PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE. 

which  have  groAvn  familiar  to  him,  but  which  the  people 
iu  general  cannot  at  all  understand.  Most  persons  after- 
wards learn  to  correct  this,  at  least  in  some  measure;  but 
occasionally  we  see  a  man  of  mature  years  and  of  great 
ability,  who  seems  wholly  unacquainted  with  popular  modes 
of  thought  and  forms  of  expression,  and  wdiolly  unaware 
that  such  is  the  case.  The  few  who  understand  and  sym- 
pathize with  him  speak  with  delight  of  his  sermons,  but 
for  the  many  they  might  as  well  be  delivered  in  German.* 
Even  those  technical  terms  in  theology  with  which  the 
people  are.yery  familiar,  do  not  ahvays  represent  to  them 
any  distinct  conception.  Yet  such  terms  as  regeneration, 
depravity,  etc.,  etc.,  it  is  necessary  to  use  in  preaching,  or 
much  time  will  be  lost  in  tedious  circumlocutions.  Besides 
taking  frequent  occasion  distinctly  to  explain  these  terms, 
we  may  often  prefix  or  add  to  them  some  w^ords  of  a  more 
popular  character,  or  may  introduce  them  in  such  connec- 
tions as  will  throw  light  on  them.f  That  even  the  com- 
monest words  of  Scripture  may  be  employed  in  an  utterly 
unscriptural  sense,  is  shown  by  the  frequent  use  of  them  on 
the  part  of  modern  Pantheistic  iniidels. 

It  is  often  remarked  that  Anglo-Saxon  words  are  gen- 
erally more  perspicuous  to  the  people  at  large,  than  words 
of  Latin  origin.  The  latter  are  frequently  more  precise, 
being  restricted  in  usage  to  a  certain  specific  sense,  while 
the  Ani;lo- Saxon  word  is  the  "-eneral  term.  Thus  the 
phrase,  perspicuity  of  style,  is  a  more  precise  expression 
than  plainness  or  clearness  of  style,  and  is  therefore 
preferable  in  a  treatise,  or  in  conversation  with  a  culti- 
vated person.  But  in  speaking  to  a  general  audience  it 
would  be  better  to  use  the  term  plainness,  notwithstanding 
its  ambiguity,  because  the  people  so  much  more  readily 

*  See  a  striking  passage  in  Vinet,  p.  373-4. 

f  As  tc  Foster's  objection  to  the  use  of  such  terms,  compare 
below  on  Eleganco,  chap.  4. 


PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE.  345 

and  vividly  see  its  meaning.  And  if  there  should  be 
danger  of  their  confusing  the  two  senses,  of  plainness  as 
opposed  to  obscurity,  and  plainness  as  opposed  to  orna- 
ment, we  may  guard  against  this  by  adding  some  other 
simple  phrase  which  will  show^  what  is  meant.  In  general, 
the  Anglo-Saxon  element  of  our  language  deserves  great 
attention,  for  its  terms  are  not  only  perspicuous  to  all,  but 
are  apt  to  be  singularly  suggestive,  through  life-long  asso- 
ciation of  ideas ;  besides  the  bulk  of  meaning  contained, 
they  carry  with  them  an  atmosphere  of  suggestion,  often 
surpassingly  attractive  and  stimulating.  Those  who  have 
studied  Latin  and  French  ought  to  study  Anglo-Saxon 
,also ;  and  whether  a  student  of  language  or  not,  every 
preacher  should  practically  master  the  homely,  "household 
words  "  of  our  own  English.  Let  it  not  be  taken  for 
granted  that  we  know  these  already;  for  the  discriminating 
use  of  them  is  by  no  means  universal,  even  among  educate;^"' 
men.* 

(2.)  We  must  use  words  and  phrases  that  exactly  express 
our  thought.  Terms  may  be  intelligible  to  the  audience, 
and  yet  not  certainly  represent  to  them  our  meaning.  They 
may  be  ambiguous,  so  that  while  the  hearer  understands 
both  senses,  he  does  not  readily  see  which  is  here  intended. 
Even  the  sacred  writers,  employing  an  easy,  colloquial 
style,  have  sometimes  left  us  ambiguous  expressions.  Fol 
example,  the  love  of  God,  in  Greek  as  in  English,  may 
denote  our  love  to  God,  or  his  love  to  us.  Which  it  means 
in  any  case  must  be  determined  from  the  connection,  or 
perhaps  from  the  usage  of  the  writer.    John  uses  it  in  both 

*Oii  the  general  subject  of  studying  English,  see  above,  chap.  1, 
12.  Of  course  it  would  be  great  folly  to  prefer  an  Anglo-Saxon 
word  merely  because  it  is  such,  when  a  word  of  Latin  or  other 
origin  would  be  equally  intelligible,  or  much  more  appropriate. 
But  the  effort  to  use  the  most  perspicuous  and  expressive  terms  will 
be  promoted  by  habitual  attention  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  part  of  our 
language. 


346  PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE. 

senses,  Paul  almost  invariably  in  the  latter.  A  style  abso 
lutely  free  from  such  ambiguities  would  not  be  natural, 
and  yet  they  ought  of  course  to  be  avoided  as  far  as  possi- 
ble. Or,  terms  may  be  used  in  different  senses  in  the  same 
connection,  and  thus,  although  not  in  themselves  ambigu 
ous,  may  leave  the  meaning  doubtful.  Or  they  may  be 
general  terms,  and  fail  to  indicate  what  specific  idea  was 
meant.  Or  they  may  be  indefinite,  and  leave  it  uncertain 
what  extent  of  meaning  w\as  designed.  In  general,  the 
terms  ought  to  be  precise,  as  it  were  cut  down  to  fit  the 
meaning,  so  that  the  expression  and  the  idea  exactly  cor- 
respond, neither  of  them  containing  anything  which  the 
other  does  not  contain.*  Such  terms  may  almost  always 
be  found,  and  we  should  habitually  constrain  ourselves  to 
seek  for  them.  Besides  the  advantage  of  perspicuity  to 
others,  this  habit  will  greatly  benefit  our  own  minds,  for 
our  thoughts  attain  a  definite  form  and  distinct  outlines 
only  in  proportion  as  we  find  the  precise  terms  to  express 
them.  It  will  also  give  freshness.  No  two  men  think 
exactly  alike,  even  as  all  countenances  are  different ;  and 
he  who  thinks  at  all  upon  a  subject,  and  then  says  just 
what  he  thinks,  cannot  fail  of  being  to  some  extent  original. 
One  important  means  of  securing  precision,  is  accurate 
discrimination  between  so-called  &ynonymes.  Even  the 
English  language,  which  in  so  many  cases  retains  both  an 
Anglo-Saxon  and  a  Latin  word  of  much  the  same  original 
meaning,  has,  strictly  speaking,  no  synonymes.  Our  usage 
has  assigned  to  the  words  different  departments  of  the  field 
once  common  to  both,  or  at  least  a  different  extent  of  appli- 
cation.    The  more  cultivated  a  language  becomes,  as  De 

*  It  should  be  remarked  that  Vinet's  discussion  of  precision,  and 
of  what  he  calls  propriety,  is  apt  to  confuse  the  student,  because 
those  terms  do  not  mean  precisely  the  same  thing  in  French  as  in 
English.  This  difficulty  also  exists  with  reference  to  some  other 
portions  of  his  valuable  work. 


PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE.  347 

Qiiincey  has  remarked,  the  more  it  distinguishes  between 
apparent  synonyraes.  To  take  a  familiar  example,  the 
Greek  word  sympathy,  the  Latin  compassion,  and  the  com- 
pound of  Anglo-Saxon,  fellow-feeling,  are  in  origin  sub- 
stantially the  same;  but  how  distinct  they  now  are  as 
English  words.  Yet  there  are  very  many  cases  in  which 
different  words  will  coincide,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  so 
that  the  careless  observer  would  regard  them  as  in  all 
respects  equivalent,  and  between  these  it  is  highly  import- 
ant to  discriminate.  Our  own  language,  for  the  reason 
just  indicated,  greatly  abounds  in  these  synonymes,  and 
the  preacher  cannot  be  too  earnestly  urged  to  give  them 
his  constant  and  pains-taking  attention.* 

Skill  in  the  choice  of  terms  comes  to  no  man  as  a  matter 
of  course.  All  who  succeed  in  this  respect,  however  gifted 
or  however  unlettered,  have  attained  it  by  observation,  re- 
flection, practice.  He  who  thinks  words  unimportant,  will 
never  be  perspicuous  in  expression,  nor  clear  in  thinking.f 

2.  Perspicuity  also  depends  on  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences and  paragraphs.     This  important  subject  will  not 

*  Wliately's  Synonymes  is  our  best  book,  so  far  as  it  goes.  The 
latest  editions  of  Webster's  and  Worcester's  Dictionaries  (una- 
bridged), treat  all  the  more  important  Synonymes,  and  many  of 
them  in  a  very  instructive  manner.  Roget's  Thesaurus  of  English 
Words  is  also  useful,  for  this  and  kindred  purposes.  Crabb's  Syno- 
nymes, which  became  famous  because  we  had  nothing  else,  is  defi- 
cient in  clearness,  and  often  inaccurate. 

f  A  talented  and  highly  educated  young  man  who  was  made  Pro- 
fessor of  Natural  Sciences  in  an  American  University,  rarely  met  a 
particular  friend  of  his  without  speaking  of  words.  "What  do  you 
think  is  the  difference  between  this  word  and  this  ?  It  is  so  hard  to 
find  the  precise  word  for  describing  physical  forces  and  phenomena." 
A  few  years  later  a  gentleman  who  had  heard  the  Professor  lecture 
Baid  to  the  same  friend,  "  He  is  thoroughly  master  of  the  subject, 
and  he  has  an  extraordinary  readiness  and  felicity  in  the  use  of 
words.  What  a  wonderful  gift!  He  wants  a  word,  and  there  it 
is."     Fluency  is  a  gift,  but  precision  is  the  fruit  of  labor. 


348  PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE. 

here  be  discussed  at  length,  because  it  requires  to  be  illus- 
trated by  numerous  examples,  and  can  be  thoroughly  mas- 
tered only  by  means  of  written  exercises. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  short  sentence  will  be  more  per- 
spicuous than  a  long  one.  Yet  a  succession  of  very  short 
sentences  must  not  only  be  deficient  in  respect  of  har- 
mony, and  of  the  energy  which  belongs  to  climax,  but  is 
really  unfavorable  to  perspicuity.  Sentences  aggregate 
the  thoughts  which  are  to  be  comprehended  and  retained  ; 
and  if  these  bundles,  so  to  speak,  are  of  considerable  di- 
mensions, the  whole  mass  of  thought  will  be  more  readily 
grasped  and  more  easily  borne  with  us.  In  order  to  variety, 
there  should  be  a  combination  of  short  and  long  sentences. 
Even  one  that  is  very  long  may  be  quite  perspicuous,  pro- 
vided the  sense  be  not  suspended  till  the  close,  as  is  done  in 
periodic  sentences.*  In.  general  it  is  better  that  the  qual- 
ifying clauses  of  a  sentence  should  precede  those  qualified ; 
in  order  that  when  we  do  reach  a  concrete  conception,  it 
may  be  the  complete  conception  proposed,  needing  no  sub- 
sequent addition  or  correction.  But,  "  as  carrying  forward 
each  qualifying  clause  costs  some  mental  effort,  it  follows 
that  when  the  number  of  them  and  the  time  they  are  carried 
becomes  great,  we  reach  a  limit  beyond  Avhich  more  is  lost 
than  is  gained."  f  This  limit  is  much  sooner  reached  in 
what  is  to  be  heard  than  in  what  is  to  be  read.  And  the 
difliculty  is  greater  for  uneHucated  minds  than  cultivated 
people  can  well  imagine.  "  Aim  at  a  certain  simplicity  in 
the  structure  of  your  sentences,  avoiding  long,  intricate 
and  complex  periods.  Remember  always  that  the  bulk  of 
the  people  are  unused  to  reading  and  study.  They  lose 
sight  of  the  connection  in  very  long  sentences,  and  they 
are  quite  bewildered  when,  for  the  sake  of  rounding  a 
period,  and  suspending  the  sense  till  the  concluding  clause, 
you  transgress   the    customary  arrangement  of  the  word.«» 

*  See  below,  chap.  3.  f  Hei'bert  Spencer,  on  Style,  p.  24, 


PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE.  349 

The  nearer  therefore  your  diction  comes  to  the  language 
of  conversation,  the  more  familiar  "will  it  be  to  them,  and 
so  the  more  easily  apprehended.  In  this  the  style  of  Scrip- 
ture is  an  excellent  model."  *  It  may  be  added  that  sen- 
tences should  be  so  framed  as  to  leave  no  obscurity  or  ambi- 
guity in  respect  to  the  relation  of  different  clauses.  Special 
care  in  this  respect  is  needed  in  our  language,  because  our 
pronouns  present  very  imperfect  means  of  distinction  as  to 
gender,  number  and  case.  It  is  grievously  common  to  find 
difficulty  in  perceiving,  to  which  of  two  preceding  nouns 
seme  it  or  that,  some  they  or  those,  is  designed  to  refer.f 

However  great  may  be  the  practical  difficulty  of  learning 
to  construct  sentences  well,  every  one  can  see  that  this  is 
important.  Inexperienced  writers  and  speakers  are  seldom 
equally  impressed  with  the  importance  of  the  paragraph. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  a  man  of  considerable  ability 
writing  an  extended  discourse  or  essay  without  any  indica- 
tion of  paragraphs  at  all ;  though  there  will  have  been,  in 
spite  of  his  inattention,  some  natural  connection  of  the 
thoughts,  and  a  critic  or  compositor  may  succeed  in  break- 
ing up  the  wdiole  into  rude  blocks.  Others  do  still  worse, 
for  they  indicate  paragraphs  at  hap-hazard,  often  separating 
matters  which  should  be  united.  Noav  in  some  respects  the 
proper  construction  of  paragraphs  is  more  important  than 
that  of  sentences.  If  a  sentence  is  badly  arranged,  the 
reader  or  hearer  will  at  any  rate  have  the  matter  of  it 
before  his  mind,  and  can  usually  perceive,  w^ith  more  or 
less  effort,  what  relation  of  ideas  was  meant  to  be  expressed. 
But  when  paragraphs  are  neglected,  it  requires  a  very 
broad  view  of  the  whole  connection  of  discourse  to  supply 
the  defect.  In  reading,  there  may  be  opportunity,  if  it  is 
thought  worth  while,  to  look  back,  and  carefully  scan  the 

*  Campbell  on  Pulpit  Eloq.,  Lect.  III. 

f  See  this  matter  well  discussed  in  Campbell's  Phil,  of  Rhet.  p. 
253-65. 

30 


350  PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE. 

whole,  so  as  to  perceive  the  grouping  of  thoughts;  and 
besides,  in  reading  print,  the  compositor  has  helped  us. 
But  in  hearing,  we  have  no  help,  and  no  time  to  study  :wt 
the  connection.  It  is  thus  plain,  that,  especially  in  dis- 
course which  has  to  be  heard,  the  proper  management  of 
paragraphs  is  indispensable  to  perspicuity. 

The  prime  requisite  in  a  paragraph  is  unity.  There  must 
be  some  one  thought,  or  group  of  related  thoughts,  occu- 
pying the  whole.  Digressions,  when  made  at  all,  must 
constitute  separate  paragraphs.  This  one  thought  may 
commonly  be  presented  in  the  opening  sentence ;  or  it  may 
so  present  the  first  of  a  series  or  group  of  thoughts,  as  to 
indicate  the  character  and  purpose  common  to  them  all. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  opening  sentence  will  be  mani- 
festly preparatory,  perhaps  repeating  what  has  preceded, 
in  order  to  facilftate  the  transition.  Another  requisite  is, 
that  the  successive  sentences  should  so  grow  out  of  each 
other,  or  be  so  joined  together  by  particles,  as  to  make  the 
paragraph  a  whole.  As  to  the  length  of  paragraphs, 
there  is  of  course  no  rule,  and  the  main  thing  to  be  sought 
is  an  easy  and  natural  variety.* 

In  the  formation  of  paragraphs,  and  also  of  sentences, 
careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the  conjunctions,  and 
other  connectives.  What  grammarians  call  the  particles,  or 
little  parts  of  speech,  are  not  less  important  than  the 
greater  parts,  for  they  establish  a  relation  between  these, 
converting  crude  matter  into  a  structure,  an  operative 
organization  —  like  the  joints  in  a  body.  The  felicitous 
choice  of  a  preposition  or  conjunction,  or  the  proper  hand- 
ling of  a  relative  pronoun,  will  often  contribute  immensely 
to  the  perspicuity  of  a  sentence  or  a  paragraph.f 

*  The  subject  of  paragraphs  is  treated  at  length,  and  with  some 
good  examples,  by  Bain,  p.  142-52.     Most  treatises  neglect  it, 

f  See,  on  the  connectives,  Campbell's  Phil,  of  Rhet.,  Part  III, 
chap.  4  and  5.     See  also  Bain,  as  above. 


PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE.  351 

In  unwritten  composition,  or  what  is  called  extempora- 
neous speaking,  it  is  practically  better,  though  amounting 
to  the  same  thing,  to  fix  the  mind  on  points,  rather  than  on 
paragraphs.  Do  not  be  thinking  how  you  would  distribute 
this  on  pages  if  you  were  writing,  but  arrange  a  succession 
of  points  to  be  treated.  Then  taking  up  each  of  these  in 
order,  remember  the  homely  saying,  and  "stick  to  your 
point."  One  may  thus  gain  the  unity  and  consecutiveness 
which  belong  to  a  written  paragraph.  Yet  there  is  proba- 
bly no  one  particular  in  which  a  speaker  so  much  needs 
the  discipline  of  written  composition,  as  in  respect  to  this 
matter  of  consecutiveness  in  developing  a  single  thought. 
A  man  who  never  writes  anything  may  sometimes  learn  to 
frame  sentences  weU,  and  to  arrange  discourses  well.  He 
may  have  distinct  points,  corresponding  to  paragraphs, 
and  each  constituting  a  unit.  But  to  develop  these 
points  in  an  orderly  manner,  so  that  each  sentence  may 
grow  out  of  the  preceding,  or  have  a  well -indicated  con- 
nection with  it,  so  that  the  developed  unit  may  become 
a  structure,  an  harmonious  organization,  this  is  what  few 
men  learn  to  achieve  without  practice  in  writing  para- 
graphs. Nor  does  the  hurried  writing  so  common  among 
those  who  read  sermons,  at  all  mend  the  matter.  What 
De  Quincey  says  on  a  kindred .  subject  is  here  emphat- 
ically true.  "  Every  man  who  has  had  any  experience  in 
writing,  knows  how  natural  it  is  for  hurry  and  fulness  of 
matter  to  discharge  itself  by  vast  sentences,  involving 
clause  within  clause  ad  infinitum  —  how  difficult  it  is,  and 
how  much  a  work  of  time,  to  break  up  this  huge  fascicu- 
lus of  cycle  and  epicycle  into  a  graceful  succession  of 
sentences,  long  intermingled  with  short,  each  modifying 
the  other,  and  arising  musically  by  links  of  spontaneous 
connection.  Now  the  plethoric  form  of  period,  this  mon- 
ster model  of  sentence,  bloated  with  decomplex  intercala- 
tions ....  is  the  prevailing  model  in  newspaper  eloquence. 


352  PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE. 

Crude  undigested  masses  of  suggestion,  furnishing  rather 
raw  materials  for  composition  and  jottings  for  the  memory, 
than  any  formal  developments  of  the  ideas,  describe  the 
quality  of  writing  ^vhich  must  prevail  in  journalism ;  not 
from  defect  of  talents  ....  but  from  the  necessities  of 
hurry  and  of  instant  compliance  with  an  instant  emergency, 
granting  no  possibility  for  revision,  or  opening  for  amended 
thought,"  *  Nay,  it  requires  careful  writing,  not  hurried, 
even  though  sometimes  rapid,  and  not  put  forth  without 
critical  revision,  to  give  the  kind  of  training  which  is  here 
needed.  Such  careful  writing,  though  not  of  what  he  is 
about  to  speak,  an  extemporaneous  preacher  ought  fre- 
quently to  practise.f 

3.  Perspicuity  depends  not  only  on  the  choice  of  terms, 
and  the  proper  construction  of  sentences  and  paragraphs, 
but  also  on  the  general  brevity  or  diflfuseness  of  the  style. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  briefest  statement  of 
an  idea  is  sure  to  be  the  clearest.  If  it  be  really  made 
clear  to  the  person  addressed,  then  of  course  the  briefer  the 
better.  But  "extreme  conciseness  is  ill-suited  to  hearers 
or  readers  whose  intellectual  powers  and  cultivation  are 

but  small It  is   remarked  by  anatomists,  that  the 

nutritive  quality  is  not  the  only  requisite  in  food  ;  —  that  a 
certain  degree  of  distention  of  the  stomach  is  required,  to 
enable  it  to  act  with  its  full  powers ;  —  and  that  it  is  for 
this  reason  hay  or  straw  must  be  given  to  horses,  as  well  as 
corn,  in  order  to  supply  the  necessary  bulk.  Something 
analogous  to  this  takes  place  with  respect  to  the  gener- 
ality of  minds;  which  are  incapable  of  thoroughly  digest- 
ing and  assimilating  what  is  presented  to  them,  however 

clearly,  in  a  very  small  compass It  is  necessary  that 

the  attention  should  be  detained  for  a  certain  time  on 
the  subject :  and  persons  of  unphilosophical  mind,  though 
they  can  attend  to  what  they  read  or  hear,  are  unapt  to 
dwell  upon  it  in  the  way  of  subsequent  meditation." 

*  On  Style,  p.  82.  f  Comp,  below,  Part  IV,  chap   1. 


PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE.  353 

"  The  usual  expedieut,  however,  of  employing  a  prolix 
style  by  way  of  accommodation  to  such  minds,  is  seldom 
successful.  Most  of  those  who  could  have  comprehended 
the  meaning,  if  more  briefly  expressed,  and  many  of  those 
who  could  not  do  so,  are  likely  to  be  bewildered  by  tedious 
expansion  ;  and  being  unable  to  maintain  a  steady  atten- 
tion to  what  is  said,  they  forget  part  of  what  they  have 
heard,  before  the  whole  is  completed.  Add  to  which,  that 
the  feebleness  produced  by  excessive  dilution,  (if  such  an 
expression  may  be  allowed,)  will  occasion  the  attention  to 
languish  ;  and  what  is  imperfectly  attended  to,  however 
clear  in  itself,  will  usually  be  but  imperfectly  understood. 
Let  not  an  author,  therefore,  satisfy  himself  by  finding  that 
he  has  expressed  his  meaning  so  that  if  attended  to,  he 
cannot  fail  to  be  understood  ;  he  must  consider  also  ivhat 
attention  is  likely  to  be  paid  to  it.  If  on  the  one  hand 
much  matter  is  expressed  in  very  few  words  to  an  unre- 
flecting audience,  or  if,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  weari- 
some prolixity,  the  requisite  attention  may  very  probably 
not  be  bestowed."  * 

Prolixity,  then,  is  worse  than  extreme  conciseness.  The 
latter,  though  imperfectly  understood,  may  stimulate  atten- 
tion and  reflection,  and  lead  to  subsequent  examination  of 
the  subject.  The  former  does  but  v/eary  and  disgust.  It 
must  be  granted  that  prolixity  is  very  common  in  the 
pulpit.  Preachers  often  have  to  prepare  and  preach  when 
their  minds  are  not  in  a  creative  mood.  It  seems  their 
duty  to  say  something,  and  custom  requires  that,  however 
unfruitful  the  subject  and  however  unfavorable  their  own 
state  of  mind,  they  shall  continue  for  at  least  a  certain 
number  of  minutes.f  Under  such  circumstances  a  man's 
ideas  are  not  clear,  and  in  the  feeble  struggle  to  express 
them,  he  inevitably  becomes  prolix. 

There  are  several  means  by  which  we  may  avoid  too 

*Wha^.ely,  p.  301-2.  f  Comp.  Whately,  p.  315. 

80* 


354  PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE. 

great  c;onciseness  without  fulling  into  prolixity.  One  of 
these  is  repetition.  In  some  cases  it  is  well  to  repeat  the 
statement,  in  the  same  words.  More  commonly,  we  may 
"  repeat  the  same  sentiment  and  argument  in  many  different 
forms  of  expression ;  each  in  itself  brief,  but  all  together 
affording  such  an  expansion  of  the  sense  to  be  conveyed, 
and  so  detaining  the  mind  upon  it,  as  the  sense  may  re- 
quire." This  repetition  must  of  course  not  be  a  mere  tau- 
tology. The  thought  must  be  presented  in  some  other  view 
or  some  new  relation.  "  What  has  been  expressed  in  appro- 
priate terms  may  be  repeated  in  metaphorical ;  the  ante- 
cedent and  consequent  of  an  argument,  or  the  parts  of  an 
antithesis  may  be  transposed ;  or  several  different  points 
that  have  been  enumerated,  presented  in  a  varied  order, 
&c."  *  Another  means  is  by  varied  illustration.  After 
stating  the  thought  as  clearly  as  can  be  done  within  a  mod- 
erate compass,  we  may  present  various  illustrations  of  it, 
or  of  its  different  aspects.  These  interest  the  hearer,  and 
detain  his  attention  on  the  matter  in  hand,  until  he  becomes 
perfectly  familiar  with  it,  and  yet  not  weary  of  it.  There 
is  no  more  remarkable  example  of  this  than  Chalmers. 
His  sermons  often  consist  of  a  single  idea,  which  is  held  up 
in  different  lights,  turned  over  and  over,  and  round  and 
round,  until  we  have  seen  every  facet  it  possesses ;  and  yet 
each  of  these  aspects  is  made  so  bright  with  fresh  illustra- 
tion, so  brilliant  with  hues  of  fancy,  that  we  cannot  grow 
weary.f  In  this,  as  in  some  other  respects,  Chalmers  is 
one  of  the  worst  models  to  be  imitated,  but  one  of  the  most 
profitable  examples  to  be  studied.  And  a  third  means  of 
gaining  the  requisite  expansion  without  prolixity,  is  divi- 
sion. The  matter  presented,  however  minute,  may  often  be 
divided  into  several  points,  just  as  we  divide  larger  topics; 

*  Whately,  p.  302-3. 

f  Robert  Hall  said  of  his  sermous  that  their  movement  ^as  on 
hinges,  not  on  wheels. 


PERSPICUITY    OF    STYLE.  355 

and  these  points  being  successively  stated,  the  whole  is 
clearly  seen. 

And  here  let  us  dwell  upon  the  fact,  which  the  preacher 
cannot  too  carefully  consider,  that  as  in  several  other  re- 
spects, so  particularly  in  respect  to  expansion,  the  proper 
style  of  public  speaking  is  widely  different  from  that  appro- 
priate to  an  essay,  or  to  anything  designed  to  be  deliberately 
read.  This  has  been  often  stated,  and  in  the  strongest 
terms. 

*'  That  is  good  rhetoric  for  the  hustings  which  is  bad  for  a  book. 
Even  for  the  highest  forms  of  popular  eloquence,  -the  laws  of  style 
vary  much  from  the  general  standard.  In  "the  senate,  and  for  the 
eamc  reason  in  a  newspaper,  it  is  a  virtue  to  reiterate  your  mean- 
ing: ....  variation  of  the  words,  with  a  substantial  identity  of  the 

sense  and  dilution  of  the  truth,  is  oftentimes  a  necessity It 

is  the  advantage  of  a  book,  that  you  can  return  to  the  past  page 
if  anything  in  the  present  depends  upon  it.  But  return  being  im- 
possible in  the  case  of  a  spoken  harangue,  where  each  sentence 
perishes  as  it  is  born,  both  the  speaker  and  the  hearer  become 
aware  of  a  mutual  interest  in  a  much  looser  style.  It  is  for  the 
benefit  of  both,  that  the  weightier  propositions  should  be  detained 
before  the  eye  a  good  deal  longer  than  the  chastity  of  taste  or  the 
austerity  of  logic  would  tolerate  in  a  book."  * 

"Another  predominant  cause  of  the  different  impression  which  a 
speech  produces  in  the  closet  from  what  it  does  when  heard  is  found 
in  the  nature  of  the  oratorical  style.  When  Dr.  Johnson  furnished 
Boswell  with  the  materials  for  an  address  to  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  on  an  election  petition,  he  added,  '  This  you 
must  enlarge  on.  You  must  not  argue  there,  as  if  you  were  argu- 
ing in  the  schools.  You  must  say  the  same  thing  over  and  over 
again,  in  different  words.  If  you  say  it  but  once,  they  miss  it  in  a 
moment  of  inattention.'  The  masters  of  eloquence  have  enforced 
the  rule.  Fox  advised  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  when  about  to  sum  up 
the  evidence  in  Lord  Melville's  trial,  'not  to  be  afraid  of  repeating 
observations  which  were  material,  since  it  were  better  that  some  of 
the  audience  should  observe  it  tlian  that  any  should  not  understand.' 
Though  he  himself  was  censured  for  the  practice,  he  declared  it  to 

»  *  De  Quincey  on  Style,  p.  69. 


356  PERSPICTJITY    OF    STYLE. 

be  his  conviction,  from  long  experience,  that  the  system  was  right. 
Pitt  urged  a  similar  defence  for  the  amplification  which  was  thought 
by  some  to  be  a  defect  in  his  style.  'Every  person,'  he  said,  'who 
addressed  a  public  assembly,  and  was  anxious  to  make  an  impres- 
sion upon  particular  points,  must  either  be  copious  upon  those 
points  or  repeat  them,  and  that  he  preferred  copiousness  to  repeti- 
tion.' Lord  Brougham  gives  his  testimony  on  the  same  side.  The 
orator,  he  remarks,  often  feels  that  he  could  add  strength  to  hi? 
composition  by  compression,  but  his  hearers  would  then  be  unable 
to  keep  pace  with  him,  and  he  is  compelled  to  sacrifice  conciseness 
40  clearness.  Cicero  objects  to  the  Greeks  that  they  sometimes 
carried  brevity  to  the  point  of  obscurity.  The  expansion  which  is 
a  merit  at  the  moment  of  delivery  is  turned  to  a  defect  when  a  speech 
is  printed.  What  before  was  impressive  seems  now  to  be  verbose, 
and  the  effect  is  diminished  in  much  the  same  proportion  that  it  was 
originally  increased.  It  was  for  some  such  reason  that  Fox  asserted 
that  if  a  speech  read  well  it  was  not  a  good  speech."  * 

Aristotle  has  distinctly  declared  the  same  thing. 

**  And  when  they  are  compared,  the  speeches  of  the  writers  appear 
compressed  and  cramped  if  delivered  in  debate ;  but  those  of  the 
orators,  after  being  spoken  with  success,  are  commonplace  when 
read  in  private  ;  and  the  reason  is.  that  in  debate  these  things  are 
appropriate.  Wherefore  also  compositions  prepared  to  be  delivered, 
when  the  delivery  is  wanting,  do  not  produce  their  effect,  and  ap- 
pear ridiculous.  Thus  the  omission  of  connectives,  and  frequent 
repetitions,  are  in  the  written  style  rightly  rejected  ;  but  in  the  style 
of  debate  even-the  orators  use  them  ;  for  they  are  adapted  to  deliv- 
ery. Yet  it  is  necessary  in  repeating  the  same  thing  to  vary  the 
expression  ;  which  indeed  opens  a  wa}^  as  it  were,  to  the  delivery  : 
*  This  is  he  who  robbed  you  ;  this  is  he  who  cheated  you  ;  this  is  he 
who  at  last  endeavored  to  betray  you.'  "  f 

In  conclusion,  let  us  remember  that  efforts  to  be  per- 
spicuous may  be  carried  too  far.  It  is  wretchedly  tiresome 
to  hear  a  man  carefully  explaining  what  every  one  present 

»  Lend.  Quart.  Rev.,  1858,  p.  272.     The  late  Earl  of  Derby  was  remark' 
ably  diffuse. 
t  Rhet.  Ill,  12. 


ENEEGY    OF    STYLE.  357 

understands  beforehand,  or  continuing  to  repeat  and  open 
and  illustrate  what  he  has  already  made  sufficiently  plain. 
And  the  oratorical  diffuseness  just  spoken  of,,  is  a  very  dif- 
ferent thing  from  that  torrent  of  useless  words  which  we  are 
so  often  compelled  to  endure. 


CHAPTER   III. 

ENERGY   OF   STYLE. 

THE  terra  energy,  as  applied  to  style,  includes  all  that 
we  mean  by  such  separate  terms  as  animation,  force, 
and  passion.  Animation,  or  liveliness,*  serves  to  stimulate 
attention ;  it  is  not  enough  for  a  speaker  to  say  what  the 
hearer  may  understand  if  he  attends  ;  the  point  is  to  arouse 
him,  to  put  life  into  him,  to  make  attention  easy  and  pleas- 
ant, and  inattention  difficult.  For  this  the  freshness  of  the 
thought,  and  the  magnetic  power  of  delivery  are  the  chief 
agents ;  but  much  may  also  be  accomplished  by  animation 
of  style.f  The  term,  force  is  used  especially  with  reference 
to  arguments,  and  the  kindred  word  power  is  applied  both 
to  arguments  and  to  motives.  Passion  —  which  in  its 
milder  and  more  tender  forms  we  call  pathos,  and  in  its 
highest  form  the  sublime  —  has  its  effect  upon  the  feelings, 
often  by  means  of  the  imagination  ;  and  both  force  and  pas- 
sion aim  at  last  to  influence  the  will.  It  is  thus  plain,  ac- 
cording to  the  view  we  have  taken  of  eloquence,J  that  the 

*  Campbell's  term,  "vivacity,"  is  now  restricted  to  conversation, 
and  the  lighter  kinds  of  writing. 

•}■  There  is  a  homely  story  of  a  preacher  who  suggested  to  a  sleepy 
hearer  that  snuff  might  keep  him  awake,  and  was  asked  in  return, 
**  Gould  n't  you  put  a  little  more  snuff  into  your  sermons." 

X  See  Introduction,  §  2. 


358  ENERGY    OF    STYLE. 

characteristic  property  of  an  eloquent  style  is  energy. 
Perspicuity  it  needs  in  common  with  the  philosophical  or 
didactic  style  ;  elegance  it  may  possess  in  common  with  the 
poetic  style  ;  but  energy,  i.  e.  animation,  force  or  passion,  is 
its  characteristic. 

The  chief  requisite  to  an  energetic  style  is  an  energetic 
nature.  There  must  be  vigorous  thinking,  earnest  if  not 
passionate  feeling,  and  the  determined  purpose  to  accom- 
plish some  object,  or  the  man's  style  will  have  no  true,  ex- 
alted energy.  It  is  in  this  sense  emphatically  true  that  an 
orator  is  born,  not  made.  Without  these  qualities  one  may 
give  valuable  instruction  ;  without  them  one  might  preach 
what  silly  admirers  call  "beautiful"  sermons;  but  if  a 
man  has  not  force  of  character,  a  passionate  soul,  he  will 
never  be  really  eloquent.  There  are,  how^ever,  timid  and 
sensitive  men  who,  when  practice  has  given  them  confi- 
dence and  occasion  calls  out  their  powers,  exhibit  far  more 
of  this  masterful  nature  than  they  had  ever  imagined  them- 
selves to  possess. 

The  next  requisite  is  something  to  say,  and  something 
regarded  as  exceedingly  important.  The  mind  must  be 
full  of  thought,  if  there  is  to  be  forcible  expression.  That 
which  is  said  must  be  what  the  speaker  heartily  believes  to 
be  true,  deeply  feels  to  be  important,  and  earnestly  desires 
to  impress  upon  others.  The  preacher  has  peculiar  advan- 
tages in  respect  of  materials  conducive  to  energy,  if  he  has 
a  familiar,  profound,  and  ever-freshened  acquaintance  with 
the  Bible.  No  temporal  interests  are  so  momentous  as 
those  of  eternity.  No  other  topics  can  impart  to  the  mind 
such  vigor  and  authority  as  truths  which  we  personally 
know  to  be  taught  in  God's  Word.  "  A  truly  mighty  sa- 
cred orator  is  '  mighty  in  the  Scriptures.' "  * 

Energy  of  style  must  be  considered  under  four  heads  ; 

*Shedd,  p.  78.  Comp.  p.  73-82.  On  the  propriety  of  appeal- 
ing to  the  passions,  compare  above,  Part  T,  chap.  8. 


ENERGY    OF    STYLE.  359 

the  choice  of  terms,  the  construction  of  sentences,  concise- 
ness, and  the  use  of  Figures.'^ 

1.  As  to  the  choice  of  terms,  one  point  is,  that  so  far  as 
the  subject  may  admit  we  should  prefer  concrete  to  abstract 
terras,  and  particular  or  specific  to  general  terms.  In  phi- 
losophical discussion,  or  in  comprehensive  statements,  there 
is  of  course  need  for  ^stract  or  for  general  terms,  but  these 
are  very  unfavorable  to  energy  of  style.  "  The  more  gen- 
eral the  terms  are,  the  picture  is  the  fainter  ;  the  more  spe- 
cial they  are,  it  is  the  brighter.  The  same  sentiments  may 
be  expressed  with  equal  justness,  and  even  perspicuity,  in 
the  former  way  as  in  the  latter ;  but  as  the  coloring  will  in 
that  case  be  more  languid,  it  cannot  give  equal  pleasure  to 
the  fancy,  and  by  consequence  will  not  contribute  so  much 
either  to  fix  the  attention  or  to  impress  the  memory." 
Campbell  proceeds  to  illustrate  this  by  striking  examples 
from  Scripture. 

"  In  the  song  of  Moses,  occasioned  by  the  miraculous  pas- 
sage of  the  Israelites  through  the  Red  Sea,  the  inspired 
poet,  speaking  of  the  Egyptians,  says,  '  They  sank  as  lead 
in  the  mighty  waters.'  Make  but  a  small  alteration  on 
the  expression,  and  say,  *They/eZ^  as  metal  in  the  mighty 
waters,'  and  the  difference  in  the  effect  will  be  quite  astonish- 
ing. Yet  the  sentiment  will  be  equally  just,  and  in  either 
way  the  meaning  of  the  author  can  hardly  be  mistaken." 
And  the  difference  is  wholly  due  to  the  change  from  specific 
to  general  terms.  "  *  Consider  the  lilies  how  they  grow ; 
they  toil  not,  they  spin  not ;  and  yet  I  say  unto  you  that 

♦Some  figures,  as  metaphor  and  synecdoche,  would  of  course  fall 
under  the  head  of  choice  of  terms,  but  many  others  would  not.  The 
division  made  by  Campbell  (followed  by  Whately),  viz.  choice  of 
words,  number  of  words,  and  arrangement  of  words,  is  simple  and 
pleasing,  but  does  not  cover  the  ground.  The  divisions  here  sug- 
gested have  the  fault  of  not  being  mutually  exclusive,  but  are  yot 
practically  convenient. 


360  ENERGY    OF    STYLE. 

Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these. 
If,  then,  God  so  clothe  the  grass  which  to-day  is  in  the  field 
and  to-morrow  is  cast  into  the  oven,  how  much  more  will 
he  clothe  you.'  Let  us  here  adopt  a  little  of  the  tasteless 
manner  of  modern  paraphrasts,  by  the  substitution  of  more 

general  terms, and  observe  the  effect  produced  by  this 

change.  '  Consider  the  flowers  how  they  gradually  increase 
in  their  size ;  they  do  no  manner  of  work,  and  yet  I  declare 
to  you  that  no  king  whatever,  in  his  most  splendid  habit,  is 
dressed  up  like  them.  If,  then,  God  in  his  providence  doth 
so  adorn  the  vegetable  productions  which  continue  but  a 
little  time  on  the  land,  and  are  afterward  put  into  the  fire, 
how  much  more  will  he  provide  clothing  for  you  ? '  How 
spiritless  is  the  same  sentiment  rendered  by  these  small 
variations ! "  * 

In  order  to  give  animation  and  passion  to  style,  there 
must  be  an  appeal  to  the  imagination.  Now  we  can  form 
images  only  of  individual  objects,  and  the  image  of  some 
individual  belonging  to  a  species,  as  a  lily,  will  be  far  more 
easily  formed  and  far  more  vivid  than  that  of  an  individual 
belonging  to  a  genus,  as  a  flower.f 

Whately  points  out  that  we  are  seldom  shut  up  by  the 
nature  of  the  subject,  but  can  usually  choose  between  generic 

♦Campbell,  Phil,  of  Rhet.,  p.  307-8.  Comp.  p.  309-15.  See  be- 
low in  this  chapter,  under  the  head  of  Synecdoche. 

I  Peculiar  point  is  often  given  to  personal  application  by  the  use 
of  'thou'  instead  of  'you.'  In  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  there  are 
numerous  and  striking  instances  of  the  transition  from  general  to 
particular  by  this  means.  Let  one  compare  Matt.  5  :  21  and  23  ; 
27  and  29  ;  33  and  36  ;  38  and  39  ;  6  :  1  and  2  ;  5  (correct  text) 
and  6;  16  and  17  ;  19  and  22  ;  7  :  1  and  3.  The  lesson  is  first 
stated  in  a  general  form,  and  then  pointed  at  an  individual  hearer. 
But  observe  that  this  is  not  kept  up  throughout  the  discourse.  That 
would  look  formal,  and  become  weari&ome.  There  are  preachers 
who  frequently  employ  '  thou '  in  a  dainty,  sentimental  fashion, 
which  is  a  very  different  thing. 


ENExtGY    OF    STYLE.  361 

and  specific  terms.  Thus  the  terms  can  be  made  more 
general  than  the  subject  requires,  and  this  is  appropriate 
"  when  we  wish  to  avoid  giving  a  vivid  impression,  —  when 
our  object  is  to  soften  what  is  offensive,  disgusting,  or  shock- 
ing; as  when  we  speak  of  an  'execution,'  for  the  infliction 

of  the  sentence  of  death  on  a  criminal Many,  especially 

unpractised  writers,  fall  into  a  feeble  style  by  resorting  un- 
necessarily to  this  substitution  of  the  general  for  the  specific, 
or  of  the  specific  for  the  singular  ;  either  because  they 
imagine  there  is  more  appearance  of  refinement  or  of  pro- 
fundity, in  the  employment  of  such  terms  as  are  in  less 
common  use  among  the  vulgar,  or,  in  some  cases,  with  a 
view  to  give  greater  comprehensiveness  to  their  reasonings, 
and  to  increase  the  utility  of  what  they  say,  by  enlarging 
the  field  of  its  application.  Inexperienced  preachers  fre- 
quently err  in  this  way,  by  dwelling  on  Virtue  and  Vice,  — 
Piety  and  Irreligion,  —  in  the  abstract,  without  particular- 
izing ;  forgetting  that  while  they  include  much,  they  impress 
little  or  nothing."  * 

Epithets  will  seldom  contribute  to  energy.  An  epithet 
is  an  adjective  added  to  a  noun,  or  an  adverb  added  to  a 
verb,  which  does  not  add  anything  to  the  sense  conveyed 
by  the  noun  or  verb,  but  simply  brings  into  prominence 
something  contained  in  it.  Now  as  commonly  managed  by 
third-rate  novelists,  essayists  and  orators,  epithets  never 
render  the  expression  forcible.  Even  w^hen  really  orna- 
mental, they  are  appropriate  only  to  poetry  and  poetical 
prose.  If  you  cut  a  bough  from  an  apple-tree  in  spring  to 
please  your  friends  with  its  beauty,  you  would  retain  the 
twigs  and  leaves  and  blossoms  ;  but  if  you  wish  to  knock 
down  a  man  with  it,  all  these  must  be  trimmed  away.  Yet 
when  properly  introduced,  epithets  may  add  force.  For 
instance,  they  may  bring  to  notice  properties  of  an  object 

*  Whately,   p.  221-2.     Comp.  above,   Part  I,  chap.   3,  g  2,  as  to 
general  and  particular  morality. 
81 


362  ENERGY     OF    STYLE. 

which  would  otherwise  have  escaped  attenti«.n,  or  cause  the 
mind  to  dwell  on  the  characteristic  thus  brought  out,  until 
it  gets  the  full  impression.  Or  they  may  be  "so  many 
abridged  arguments,  the  force  of  which  is  sufficiently  con- 
veyed by  a  mere  hint ;  e.  g.  if  any  one  says,  *  we  ought  to 
take  warning  from  the  bloody  revolution  of  France,'  the 
Epithet  suggests  one  of  the  reasons  for  our  being  warned ; 
and  that  not  less  clearly,  and  more  forcibly,  than  if  the 
argument  had  been  stated  at  length."  *  It  is,  however,  a 
matter  with  reference  to  which  the  young  writer  or  speaker, 
particularly  if  he  is  highly  imaginative,  has  more  need  to 
restrain  than  to  encourage  himself 

Words  in  which  the  sound  resembles  the  sense  (onoma- 
topoeia) will  sometimes  promote  energy,  but  in  oratory  they 
must  come  unsought,  if  used  at  all. 

Unusual  words  and  phrases  may  also  be  energetic,  be- 
cause they  contrast  with  the  common  and  homely,  so  as  to 
awaken  peculiar  interest,  like  a  visitor  or  a  foreigner.f 
Yet  if  the  visitor  be  a  reserved  stranger,  or  the  foreigner 
be  ridiculous,  the  effect  is  not  good ;  and  so  the  uncommon 
expressions  must  not  be  unintelligible,  nor  grotesque. 

Anglo-Saxon  words  are  often  more  forcible  than  the  cor- 
responding words  of  Latin  origin.  In  some  cases  they  are 
more  specific,  the  Latin  having  furnished  the  general  term. 
In  other  cases  they  have  the  power  of  association,  having 
been  connected  in  our  minds  from  childhood  with  real 
objects  and  actions,  while  the  Latin  term  represents  only 
ideas.  Others  are  more  forcible  because  shorter,  so  as  to 
strike  a  quicker  blow,  while  on  the  contrary  some  long 
Latin  words  are  energetic,  because  so  ponderous  and  sono- 
rous.J 

*  Whately,  p.  332  fi". 
f  Comp.  Aristotle,  Rhet.  Ill,  2. 

JGomp.  Herbert  Spencer  on  Style,  p.  ''2-14.  His  theory  is  in- 
adequate, but  the  facts  are  well  stated. 


ENERGY    OF    STYIE.  363 

2.  Much  depends,  as  to  energy,  upon  the  construction  of 
sentences.* 

The  periodic  structure  of  sentences  requires  special  atten- 
tion. The  word  "  period  "  signifies  a  going  round,  a  circuit, 
revolution,  etc.,  and  strictly  speaking,  a  sentence  would  be 
called  a  period  when  it  returns  at  the  close  to  the  matter 
with  which  it  began.  It  was  very  common  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  particularly  the  latter,  to  begin  with  a  noun  in  the 
nominative  case,  then  make  a  long  sentence,  consisting  first 
of  adjuncts  to  the  noun  and  afterwards  of  adjuncts  to  the 
verb,  and  as  the  closing  word  to  give  the  verb.  This  would 
be  strictly  a  period ;  the  sentence  circles  round,  and  the  last 
word  is  in  close  grammatical  connection  with  the  first.  In 
English  we  seldom  give  precisely  this  form  to  long  sen- 
tences, except  in  the  inverted  style  of  blank  verse. 

"  The  blest  in  heaven,  above  the  starry  sphere, 
Their  happy  hours  in  joy  and  hymning  spend." 

But  more  generally,  any  sentence  is  called  a  period,  when 
the  sense  is  so  suspended  as  to  be  nowhere  complete  till  we 
reach  the  last  clause.  Campbell  gives  an  excellent  exam- 
ple :  "  At  last,  after  much  fatigue,  through  deep  roads,  and 
iDad  weather,  we  came,  with  no  small  difficulty,  to  our 
journey's  end."  Contrast  this  with  what  is  called  the  loose 
arrangement :  "  We  came  to  our  journey's  end  at  last,  with 
no  small  difficulty,  after  much  fatigue,  through  deep  roads, 
and  bad  weather."!  Here  the  sense  would  be  complete, 
and  the  sentence  might  end,  at  any  one  of  the  five  points  in- 
dicated by  italicized  words.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  first 
form  were  made  more  purely  periodic,  by  putting  the  verb 
nearer  the  end,  the  eflfect  w^ould  not  be  so  good.  Thus : 
"At  last,  with  no  small  difficulty,  after  much  fatigue, 
through  deep  roads,  and  bad  weather,  we  came  to  our 

*  Comp.  above,  chap.  2,  2.  f  Phil.  >f  Rhet.  p.  889. 


364  ENERGY    OF    STYLE. 

journey's  end."  Here  so  many  particular  adjuncts  are 
strung  together  before  we  reach  the  verb,  as  to  become 
wearisome,  if  not  confusing.  The  first  form  is  better.  And 
in  fact,  yet  a  fourth  form  would  make  it  in  this  respect 
better  still.  Thus:  "At  last,  with  no  small  difficulty,  and 
after  much  fatigue,  we  came,  through  deep  roads  and  bad 
weather,  to  our  journey's  end."  *  This,  however,  differs  from 
the  first  form  as  to  the  adjuncts  which  are  first  stated,  and 
thereby  made  most  prominent;  and  this  difference  must 
slightly  affect  the  resulting  sense. 

"Periods,  or  sentences  nearly  approaching  to  periods, 
have  certainly,  when  other  things  are  equal,  the  advantage 
in  point  of  Energy.  An  unexpected  continuation  of  a  sen- 
tence which  the  reader  had  supposed  to  be  concluded,  espe- 
cially if,  in  reading  aloud,  he  had,  under  that  supposition, 
dropped  his  voice,  is  apt  to  produce  a  sensation  in  the  mind 
of  being  disagreeably  balked  :  analogous  to  the  unpleasant 
jar  which  is  felt,  when  in  ascending  or  descending  stairs, 
we  meet  with  a  step  more  than  we  had  expected :  and  if 
this  be  often  repeated,  as  in  a  very  loose  sentence,  a  kind 
of  weary  impatience  results  from  the  uncertainty  when  the 
sentence  is  to  close."  f 

In  speaking,  "  the  periodic  style  is  much  less  necessary, 
and  therefore  much  less  suitable,  than  in  compositions  de- 
signed for  the  closet.  The  speaker  may,  in  most  instances, 
by  the  skilful  suspension  of  his  voice,  give  to  a  loose  sen- 
tence the  effect  of  a  Period :  and  though,  in  both  species  of 
composition  the  display  of  art  is  to  be  guarded  against,  a 
more  unstudied  air  is  looked  for  in  such  as  are  spoken."  % 
In  fact,  very  long  periodic  sentences  are,  in  speaking,  to  be 
avoided.  The  hearer  must  retain  the  whole  period  in  mind, 
and  cannot  fully  understand  any  part  of  it  until  he  reaches 
the  end ;  and  undisciplined  minds  will  find  this  very  diffi- 

*  Herbert  Spencer,  On  Style,  p   26-7. 

t  Whatelj    p.  366.  %  lb.  p.  871. 


ENERGY    OF    STYLE.  365 

cult.*  A  period  concentrates  its  whole  force  into  one  blow ; 
but  wo  must  not  gain  this  energy  by  the  sacrifice  either  of 
perspicuity  or  of  naturalness  and  ease.  It  is  sometimes 
advantageous  to  make  a  long  sentence  partly  loose  and 
partly  periodical. 

The  emphatic  arrangement  of  sentences,  is  confined  to 
much  narrower  limits  in  English  thai  in  many  other  lan- 
guages. In  the  familia.  sentence,  "  Will  you  ride  to  town 
to-day  ?  "  the  sense  will  i  e  different  according  as  the  em- 
phasis is  laid  on  '  will,'  or  on  *  you,'  or  on  '  ride,'  etc.  Now 
in  Greek  or  Latin,  where  the  order  of  words  in  a  sentence 
can  be  very  freely  varied,  the  emphatic  word  in  each  of 
these  cases  might  be  indicated  by  its  position.  But  Eno-- 
lish  idiom  does  not  permit  this ;  and  the  emphasis  has  to  be 
determined  from  the  connection,  or  must  be  marked  by 
italic  letters.  So  far  as  our  idiom  does  allow  inversion,  we 
ought  to  employ  it,  and  dispense  wdth  italics.  In  speaking, 
one  will  indicate  the  emphasis  by  the  manner  of  utterance; 
but  much  is  gained  if  it  can  at  the  same  time  be  indicated 
by  the  position  of  the  words. 

The  most  prominent  position  in  a  sentence  is  the  begin- 
ning, and  next  to  this,  the  end.  If  now  a  word  which, 
according  to  the  common  grammatical  order,  would  come 
elsewhere,  be  placed  at  the  beginning  or  the  end,  it  will 
attract  special  attention  ;  it  will  become  one  of  the  im- 
portant, the  emphatic  words  of  the  sentence.  And  in 
general,  to  put  a  word  out  of  its  ordinary  place,  will  cause 
it  to  be  specially  noticed.  Such  inversions  of  order,  by 
giving  particular  prominence  to  the  most  important  word 
or  clause,  will  often  render  a  sentence  far  more  energetic. 
Compare  "  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians,"  and  "  Diana 
of  the   Ephesians  is  great."  f      In   the  saying  of  Peter, 

*  Coinp.  above,  on  Perspicuity,  chap.  2,  2. 

f  The  French  cannot  here  invert,  as  the  Gre^k  and  English  do  , 
and  Campbell  has  very  well  remarked:   "  How  weak  in  comparisoD 
31* 


366  ENERGY     OF    STYLE. 

*'  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none,  but  such  as  I  have,  give  I 
thee,"  take  the  common  grammatical  order,  "I  have  no 
gold  and  silver,"  etc.,  and  how  feeble !  Observe  too,  that 
here  our  version  increases  the  energy  by  separating  the 
adiective  7i07ie  from  its  substantives,  and  putting  it  at  the 
end  of  the  clause,  the  other  most  emphatic  position.*  And 
not  only  may  the  predicate  thus  come  first,  for  emphasis, 
but  many  other  inversions  are  possible.  "Not  every  one 
that  saith  unto  me,  Lord,  Lord,  shall  enter  into  the  king- 
dom of  heaven."     "  Noiv  is  the  accepted  time." 

Sometimes  an  emphatic  word  or  phrase  is  put  first, 
though  it  must  afterwards  be  represented  in  its  proper 
grammatical  place  by  a  pronoun.  "  Your  fathers,  where 
are  they?  and  the  prophets,  do  they  live  forever?  "  How 
cold  and  languid,  compared  with  this,  would  be,  "  Where 
are  your  fathers?  and  do  the  prophets  live  forever?  "f 
So  also,  "  To  be  or  not  to  be,  that  is  the  question."  In 
other  cases,  an  emphatic  word  which  could  not  stand  at 
the  head  of  a  sentence,  is  introduced  by  some  pronominal 
phrase.  We  could  not  say,  "  Came  forth  two  bears  out  of 
the  wood,"  but  we  can  say,  "There  came  forth,"  etc.J 
"The  word  'it'  is  frequently  very  serviceable  in  enabling 
us  to  alter  the  arrangement :  thus,  the  sentence,  *  Cicero 
praised  Csesar,'  which  admits  of  at  least  two  modifications 
of  sense,  may  be  altered  so  as  to  express  either  of  them  by 
thus  varying  the  order  :  '  It  was  Cicero  that  praised  Csesar,' 
or,  *  It  was  Csesar  that  Cicero  praised.'  "  ||  There  are  also 
numerous  cases  in  which  a  convenient  inversion  may  be 

is  the  French  version  of  Le  Clerc,  La  Diane  des  EphSsiens  est  une 
grande  deesse !  How  deficient  that  of  Beausobre,  La  grande  Diane 
des  Ephesiens  !  How  ridiculous  that  of  Saci,  Vive  la  grande  Diane 
des  EphSsiens  !  " 

*  Campbell,  p.  378. 

f  Most  of  these  examples  are  from  Campbell,  p.  381-3. 

X  2  Kings  2  .  24.  |1  Whately,  p.  864. 


ENERGY    OF    STYLE.  367 

effected  by  changing  from  the  active  to  the  passive  con- 
Btruction.  Thus  :  "  There  is  a  yet  more  signal  instance  of 
ingratitude.  One  of  his  chosen  twelve  disciples  denied 
Jesus  Christ,  and  another  betrayed  him."  Here  "  Jesus 
Christ "  is  most  emphatic,  and  ought  to  come  first.  This 
could  be  managed,  but  with  some  awkwardness,  as  follows: 
*'  Jesus  Christ,  one  of  his  chosen  twelve  disciples  denied, 
and  another  betrayed."  All  becomes  easy  as  well  as  forci- 
ble by  making  it  passive :  "  There  is  a  yet  more  signal 
instance  of  ingratitude.  Jesus  Christ  was  denied  by  one 
of  his  chosen  twelve  disciples,  and  by  another  he  was 
betrayed." 

No  sentence  ought  to  end  in  a  large  number  of  unac- 
cented syllables,  as  "  comparable,"  "  exquisitely,"  "  agree- 
ableness."  It  is  best  to  end  with  a  word  which  accents  the 
last  syllable,  or  at  any  rate  to  have  the  accent  only  one 
syllable  from  the  end.  In  like  manner,  we  must  not  close 
the  sentence  with  a  large  number  of  unemphatic  words. 
Thus :  "  I  will  give  my  own  attention  to  the  matter,"  is 
much  feebler  than  "I  will  give  the  matter  my  own 
attention." 

Antithesis  often  adds  greatly  to  energy.  E.  g.  "  The 
Sabbath  was  made  for  man,  not  man  for  the  Sabbath." 
"  Thou  art  anxious  and  troubled  about  many  things :  but 
one  thing  is  needful."  "  The  memory  of  the  just  is  blessed : 
but  the  name  of  the  wicked  shall  rot."  Such  antithetical 
expressions  abound  in  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  as  they 
do  in  the  uninspired  proverbs  of  all  nations,  their  terseness 
and  force  contributing  to  give  them  popularity.  How 
vigorous  is  the  saying  quoted  by  Quintilian :  "  I  do  not 
live  to  eat,  I  eat  to  live."  In  all  such  cases,  each  of  thfc 
two  contrasted  clauses  throws  light  upon  the  other,  so  that, 
without  losing  perspicuity  the  expressions  may  be  made 
very  brief,  and  thus  more  pointed  and  forcible;  while  at 
tie  same  time  the  contrast  makes  the  whole  statement  more 


368  ENERGY    OF    STYLE. 

striking.  So  much  does  antithesis  contribute  to  energy 
and  brilliancy  of  style,  that  many  writers  and  speakers 
employ  it  in  great  excess.  This  disfigures  the  style  of 
Macaulay,  which  is  in  many  respects  so  admirable.  In 
preaching,  a  manifest,  and  especially  a  frequent  effort  to 
strike,  is  particularly  unbecoming.  And  besides  the  viola- 
tion of  taste  in  the  excessive  use  of  antithesis,  there  is 
danger,  in  any  single  case,  of  violating  truth.  In  order 
strikingly  to  contrast  two  things,  we  may  unconsciously 
exaggerate  the  difference.  Thus  Lord  Bacon,  who  was 
very  fond  of  antitheses,  and  has  left  a  remarkable  collec- 
tion of  them,*  says  in  the  Essay  on  Adversity,  that  "  pros- 
perity is  the  blessing  of  the  Old  Testament,  adversity  is  the 
blessing  of  the  New."  But  the  real  difference  in  this 
respect  between  the  two  Testaments  is  relative,  and  not 
absolute.  The  Old  Testament  repeatedly  teaches  the  bless- 
ing of  adversity,  the  New  several  times  promises  temporal 
prosperity.  The  former  speaks  mainly  of  prosperity,  the 
latter  mainly  of  adversity.  But  this  difference  in  degree, 
Bacon  converts,  for  the  sake  of  his  antithesis,  into  a  differ- 
ence in  kind.  The  danger  of  such  exaggeration  is  very 
great,  and  it  is  a  sad  thing  to  gain  force  at  the  expense  of 
truth. 

One  who  speaks  under  the  influence  of  strong  feeling  is 
very  apt  sometimes  to  use  broken  constructions.  He  will  be 
so  absorbed  as  not  to  notice  the  syntax,  or  after  beginning 
the  sentence  in  one  way,  a  sudden  impulse  will  cause  him 
to  break  off,  and  end  it  in  a  different  way.  The  most  im- 
passioned speakers  and  writers  naturally  employ  such  ex- 
pressions most  frequently;  for  example,  they  are  very 
common  in  the  writings  of  the  Apostle  Paul.  Whenever 
actually  prompted  by  real  feeling,  broken  constructions  are 
admissible,  and  forcible.     But  they  must  never  be  used 

*  Pe  Augip.  Scient.  Lib.  YI.  Whately  has  extracted  a  numter 
of  these,  in  the  Appendix  [A]  to  his  Rhetoric. 


ENERGY    OF    STYLE.  369 

from  calculation,  and  must  not  be  allowed,  even  when  per- 
fectly natural,  to  recur  too  often. 

Akin  to  this  is  what  gra,mmarians  call  aposiopesis,  where 
part  of  a  sentence  is  suppressed  through  emotion.  E.  g. 
Luke  19  :  42,  "If  even  thou  hadst  known  ....  the  things 
that  belong  to  thy  peace !  "  How  much  better  would  have 
been  her  destiny,  it  is  left  for  silence  to  suggest.  Luke 
22  :  42,  "  Father,  if  thou  art  willing  to  remove  this  cup 
from  me  !  "  He  does  not  go  on  to  ask  that  it  be  removed ; 
but,  after  a  pause,  he  adds,  "  Yet,  not  my  will  but  thine  be 
done."  Acts  23  :  9,  "  We  find  no  evil  in  this  man ;  but  if 
a  spirit  spoke  to  him,  or  an  angel  —  ?"  How  expressive 
was  this  silence,  from  a  Pharisee  speaking  in  the  Sanhe- 
drim, in  presence  of  the  Sadducees.  The  words,  "  let  us 
not  fight  against  God,"  were  added  by  some  critic  or  copy- 
ist, who  understood  grammar  better  than  rhetoric. 

As  regards  the  whole  matter  of  energy  in  the  construc- 
tion of  sentences,  one  may  find  great  benefit  in  the  exercise 
of  recasting  sentences.  This  would  also  conduce,  it  is  ob- 
vious, to  perspicuity  and  to  elegance,  but  it  is  still  more 
important  as  to  energy.* 

3.  Energy  is  greatly  promoted  by  Conciseness.  "  It  may 
be  established  as  a  maxim  that  admits  no  exception,  that 
the  fewer  the  words  are,  provided  neither  propriety  nor 
perspicuity  be  violated,  the  expression  is  always  the  more 
vivid.  *  Brevity,'  says  Shakspeare,  *  is  the  soul  of  wit.' 
Thus  much  is  certain,  that  of  whatever  kind  the  sentiment 
be,  witty,  humorous,  grave,  animated,  or  sublime,  the  more 
briefly  it  is  expressed,  the  energy  is  the  greater,  or  the  sen- 
timent is  the  more  enlivened As  when  the  rays  of  the 

sun  are  collected  into  the  focus  of  a  burning-glass,  tht 

*  Practical  exercises  of  this  kind  may  be  found  in  Blair's  Rhet- 
oric, Lect.  XX-XXIV ;  also  in  Day's  Art  of  Discourse,  and  in  all 
the  best  works  on  composition,  such  as  Quackenbos,  Day,  and  Bain 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  become  fastidious  about  trifles. 


370  ENERGY    OF    STYLE. 

smaller  the  spot  is  which  receives  them,  compiired  with  the 
surface  of  the'  glass,  the  greater  is  the  splendor ;  ....  so, 
in  exhibiting  our  sentiments  by  speech,  the  narrower  the 
compass  of  words  is  wherein  the  thought  is  expressed,  the 
more  energetic  is  the  expression The  very  same  sen- 
timent, expressed  diffusely,  will  be  admitted  barely  to  be 
just ;  expressed  concisely,  it  will  be  admired  as  spirited."  * 

There  is  no  more  remarkable  example  of  energetic  con- 
ciseness than  the  famous  saying  of  Caesar,  Veni,  vidi,  vici^ 
*  I  came,  saw,  conquered.'  The  studied  brevity  of  La- 
cedaemonian speech  has  given  us  the  word  laconic.  The 
orators  among  the  American  Indians  have  often  been  re- 
markable for  brief,  pithy,  pointed  sayings.  All  men,  cul- 
tivated and  uncultivated,  appreciate  brevity. 

Opposed  to  conciseness  are  tautology,  pleonasm,  and 
verbosity.  Sheer  tautology  is  perhaps  not  a  very  common 
.fault.  Pleonasm,  the  u&e  of  words  or  phrases  which  add 
nothing  to  the  sense,  is  quite  common,  and  often  greatly 
detracts  from  energy.  And  verbosity,  the  introduction  of 
expressions  which  add  something,  but  nothing  of  any  real 
importance,  is  surpassingly  frequent  and  hurtful.f 

A  certain  high-sounding  verbosity  is  apt  to  be  greatly 
admired  by  very  ignorant  or  half-educated  people.  But 
this  admiration  does  not  argue  any  real  benefit  to  them, 
nor  any  real  power  in  the  speaker.  "  It  is  not  uncommon 
to  hear  a  writer  or  speaker  of  this  class  mentioned  as  hav- 
ing 'a  very  fine  command  of  language,'  when  perhaps  it 
might  be  said  with  more  correctness  that  *  his  language  has 
a  command  of  him ;  *  that  is,  that  he  follows  a  train  of 
words  rather  than  of  thought,  and  strings  together  all  the 
striking  expressions  that  occur  to  him  on  the  subject,  in- 
stead of  first  forming  a  clear  notion  of  the  sense  he  wishes 
to   convey,  and  then   seeking   for   the   most   appropriate 

*  Campbell,  Phil,  pf  Rhet.,  p.  353. 

t  These  faults  are  vpry  fully  treated  by  Campbell,  p.  358-72. 


ENERGY    OF    STYLE.  371 

vehicle  in  which  to  convey  it.  He  has  but  the  same  '  com- 
mand of  language'  that  the  rider  has  of  a  horse  which 
runs  away  with  him."  * 

The  Hebrew  narrative  style  is  peculiarly  diffuse  and 
circumstantial ;  and  the  parallelism  of  Hebrew  poetry  leads 
to  much  repetition.  As  used  in  the  Bible,  these  are  not 
blemishes,  but  positive  excellences ;  but  in  our  own  speak- 
in  o-  and  writing  we  must  remember  that  in  these  respects 
modern  taste  demands  a  different  style,  and  that  in  such 
matters  the  taste  of  our  hearers  ought  to  be  consulted. 

Tautology  and  pleonasm  may  be  corrected  by  merely 
striking  out  the  superfluous  words ;  and  this  should  be  care- 
fully and  vigorously  done.  To  correct  verbosity  it  is  often 
necessary  to  recast  sentences,  and  substitute  other  terms. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  in  seeking  conciseness  we 
must  not  sacrifice  perspicuity.  Sometimes  a  terse,  pointed 
phrase  that  would  not  be  readily  intelligible  to  all,  may 
yet  be  employed  by  prefixing  some  more  diffuse  statement. 
"The  hearers  will  be  struck  by  the  forcibleness  of  the 
sentence  which  they  will  have  been  prepared  to  compre- 
hend ;  they  will  understand  the  longer  expression,  and  re- 
77? em6er  the  shorter."  f  Interesting  examples  of  this  may 
be  seen  in  our  Lord's  teaching,  and  in  the  Epistle  of  James.J 
In  other  cases  a  brief  statement  maybe  of  such  a  nature  as 
to  suggest  more  than  is  expressed ;  either  the  intellect  is 
set  to  pursuing  a  train  of  thought,  or  the  imagination  is 
stimulated  to  fill  up  an  outline.  Such  exercise  of  the  intel- 
lect and  imagination,  if  not  made  too  difficult,  is  highly 
agreeable  to  all ;  and  the  mind  being  thus  aroused  to  grasp 
the  subject  actively,  will  hold  it  much  more  firmly  than  it 
it  had  been  passively  received.  It  is  the  highest  type  of 
style  to  be  terse,  and  suggestive.  || 

*  Whately,  p.  347.  f  Id.  p.  351 

X  E.  g.  Matt.  19  :  30  and  20  :  16  ;  22  :  14  ;  23  :  12.     James  1  :  12, 
17,  27;  2  :  13,  26;  3  :  18;  4:  17;  5  :  6. 
11  Comp.  Whately,  p.  366. 


372  ENERGY    OF    STYLE. 

The  great  majority  of  young  speakers  and  writers  need 
with  especial  care  to  cultivate  conciseness.  Most  of  those 
who  feel  moved  to  write  or  speak  are  naturally  fluent.  They 
find  volubility  and  verbosity  to  be  easy  to  themselves,  and 
acceptable  to  many  of  their  hearers.  An  excessive  luxu- 
riance of  style  is  much  more  promising  than  extreme  barren- 
ness ;  but,  as  Cicero  remarked,  it  needs,  like  an  overgrowth 
of  grain  in  spring,  to  be  pastured  down  with  the  pen.*  The 
task  often  requires  rigorous  self-control.  The  lad  who  is 
thinning  corn  longs  to  leave  three  stalks  yonder  in  one  hill, 
because  they  all  seem  so  large  and  fine.  But  he  must  re- 
member. Three  will  make  no  more  than  two ;  nay,  will 
m£fke  less.  Some  persons,  on  the  other  hand,  should  stimu- 
late themselves  to  greater  fertility  in  respect  to  style,  which 
may  be  effected  by  improving  the  imagination,  by  familiar- 
ity with  good  writers  whose  style  tends  to  luxuriance,  and 
by  endeavoring  to  speak  and  write  under  the  influence  of  a 
more  stirring  passion,  or  a  more  tender  sentiment. 

And  it  must  not  be  forgotten,  that  while  diffuseness  is 
unfavorable  to  energy,  there  may  be  a  profuseness,  as  in 
Cicero,  Chalmers,  De  Quincey,  Gladstone,  which  is  highly 
energetic.  The  former  spreads  sluggishly  over  a  wide  ex- 
panse, the  latter  pours  onward  in  a  rushing  torrent.  Lon- 
ginus  compares  the  impassioned  style  of  Demosthenes  to  a 
storm,  or  a  thunderbolt ,  that  of  Cicero  to  a  conflagration, 
wide-spreading,  all-devouring,  long-continuing.  Even  re- 
petition, which  is  often  necessary  in  order  to  perspicuity, 
and  which  many  preachers  make  distressingly  feeble  and 
tedious,  may  be  so  managed  by  a  man  deeply  in  earnest  as 
to  be  but  strong  blows  in  quick  succession. 

1.  Perhaps  the  chief  element  of  energy  in  style  is  the  use 
of  figures  of  speech.-f     Passionate  feeling,  whether  anger, 

*DeOr.  II,  21,  23. 

f  This  topic  may  be  found  copiously  treated  in  any  of  the  familiar 
works  on  Rhetoric,  particularly  in  some  recent  works,  as  those  of 


ENERGY    OF    STYLE.  373 

fear,  love,  or  the  emotion  of  the  sublime,  naturally  expresses 
itself  by  means  of  bold  imagery, — bold,  though  never  elab- 
orate or  far-fetched. 

Figures  are  sometimes  to  be  considered  rather  as  belong- 
ing to  the  materials  of  discourse  than  to  the  style.  Thus, 
apart  from  the  expression  of  an  idea,  some  comparison  may 
be  introduced  by  way  of  proof  or  elucidation.  Usually, 
hoAvever,  figures  are  employed  as  a  means  of  expressing  the 
thought,  although  they  may  add  something  to  the  expres- 
sion, and  are  thus  properly  regarded  as  a  part  of  style. 

Metaphok  is  more  conducive  to  energy  than  comparison. 
The  latter  is  useful  in  order  to  perspicuity  or  to  elegance, 
but  is  apt  to  be  avoided  in  impassioned  or  otherwise  ener- 
getic discourse.  It  has  been  often  remarked  that  in  Demos- 
thenes' great  oration  on  the  Crown,  where  he  had  so  much 
at  stake,  and  speaks  with  such  directness  and  force  and 
vehemence,  there  is  but  a  single  comparison,  and  that 
couched  in  two  words.  Yet  comparisons  may  sometimes, 
from  the  nature  of  the  subject-matter,  be  exceedingly  im- 
pressive. "His  eyes  were  as  a  flame  of  fire,  and  his  voice 
as  the  sound  of  many  waters."  "As  the  lightning  cometh 
out  of  the  east,  and  shineth  even  unto  the  west,  so  shall  the 
coming  of  the  Son  of  man  be."  "The  ungodly  ....  are 
like  the  chaff  which  the  wind  driveth  away." 

The  metaphor  assumes  or  implies  a  resemblance  or  an 
analogy,  without  stating  it  as  in  the  comparison,  and  is  thus 
more  condensed  and  terse.  Where  a  metaphor  would  not 
be  readily  intelligible,  it  may  be  combined  with  a  compari- 
son, or  made  plain  by  some  additional  term.  A  great  mul- 
titude of  metaphors  have  become  so  familiar,  that  they  no 

Day,  Bain,  Haven,  and  Hart.  Lord  on  Figurative  Language  has  an 
excellent  collection  of  examples  from  Scripture,  some  of  which  are 
cited  below.  Usage  has  not  made  a  well-established  distinction  be- 
tween the  terms^y-ureand  trope,  but  the  latter  is  commonly  applied  only 
to  certain  figures,  particularly  metaphor,  metonomy,  and  synecdoche 


374  ENERGY    OF    STYLE. 

longer  possess  any  special  force  ;  but  in  the  many  that  never 
wear  out,  and  in  the  unlimited  range  of  new  invention  and 
combination,  metaphors  present  to  the  orator  an  inexhaust- 
ible source  of  energetic  expression.  It  is  imagination  that 
must  produce  them,  and  good  taste  that  must  regulate  their 
use.  Inexperienced  speakers  often  employ  metaphors  that 
are  incongruous  in  themselves,  or  carried  out  into  ridicu- 
lous or  wearisome  detail.  But  much  will  depend  on  sub- 
ject, occasion  and  feeling.  Even  Shakspeare's  often  con- 
demned example  of  a  mixed  metaphor,  "To  take  arms 
against  a  sea  of  troubles,"  is  allowable  and  natural  in 
Hamlet,  when  frenzied  and  meditating  suicide,  and  speak- 
ing to  himself  alone.* 

The  SYNECDOCHE  is  also  favorable  to  energy.  When 
a  part  of  a  thing  is  taken  for  the  whole,  or  the  species  for 
the  genus,  the  expression  is  apt  to  be  more  animated  and 
suggestive;  just  as  we  have  already  seen  that  particular 
or  specific  terms  are  more  energetic  than  general  terms. 
"  They  shall  beat  their  swords  into  ploughshares,  and  their 
spears  into  pruning-hooks,"  is  immensely  more  forcible  than 
to  say  in  general  that  they  will  convert  their  weapons  of 
war  into  implements  of  agriculture. 

Hyperbole,  or  saying  more  than  is  meant,  is  very 
natural  to  a  person  so  absorbed  in  the  contemplation  of  a 
particular  object  or  subject  as  to  exaggerate  its  comparative 
importance,  or  to  one  so  intensely  excited  that  all  ordinary 
expression  seems  to  him  tame.  It  is  also  allowable  in  any 
case  where  one  knows  that  the  exaggerated  language  need 
not  be  misunderstood,  and  desires  to  make  a  deep  impres- 
sion as  to  an  important  fact.  "  And  there  are  also  many 
other  things  which  Jesus  did,  the  which,  if  they  should  be 
written  every  one,  I  suppose  that  even  the  world  itself  could 
not  contain  the  books  that  should  be  written."  (John 
21     25.)      Such   expressions   are   particularly  natural  to 

*Comp.  Haven's  Rhet.,  p.  111. 


ENERGY    OF    STYLE.  375 

the  fervid  Oriental  mind,  and  thev  have  great  power  with 
the  masses  of  men.  The  Apostle  Paul  is  remarkahle  for 
hyperboles,  and  for  strong  language  of  every  kind.  His 
impassioned  expression,  "  I  could  wish  that  myself  were 
accursed  from  Christ  for  my  brethren"  (Rom.  9  :  3),  is 
best  understood  as  an  instance  of  hyperbolical  language, 
and  can  be  appreciated  only  in  proportion  as  we  sympa- 
thize with  his  patriotic  and  pious  ardor  and  devotion. 
Our  Lord's  teaching  has  a  singular  and  very  striking 
peculiarity  in  the  use  of  extreme  cases  to  set  forth  a  prin- 
ciple. "  Whosoever  shall  smite  thee  on  thy  right  cheek, 
turn  to  him  the  other  also."  When  he  himself  was  smit- 
ten on  the  cheek,  we  do  not  read  that  he  turned  the  other. 
It  was  an  extreme,  hyperbolical  way  of  stating  the  injunc- 
tion not  to  strike  back  ;  and  though  sometimes  misunder- 
stood and  misrepresented,  the  statement  is  one  which  no 
man  ever  forgets.  Compare  the  expressions,  "  Let  not  thy 
left  hand  know  what  thy  right  hand  doeth,"  "  If  any  man 
come  to  me,  and  hate  not  his  father  and  mother,"  etc. 
(Matt.  6:3;  Luke  14  :  26.)  As  a  teacher  of  men,  our 
Lord  used  a  great  variety  of  expedients  for  stimulating 
their  languid  attention,  for  compelling  them  to  remember 
and  reflect.  Many  a  phrase  of  his  fails  to  be  understood 
unless  we  bear  this  in  mind,  and  his  example  shows  that 
such  efforts  may  be  made  in  a  spirit  and  tone  wholly  unlike 
that  of  "  sensation  "  preachers.* 

Personification,  representing  or  addressing  an  inani- 
mate object  as  if  it  had  life,  sometimes  imparts  to  discourse 
great  animation  and  beauty,  and  even  passionate  energy. 
Examples  of  it  abound  in  the  Scriptures,  as  well  as  in  all 
poetry  and  oratory.  The  personification  of  Wisdom  in  the 
Proverbs  of  Solomon  is  very  striking,  and  has  been  gener- 
ally supposed  to  contain  an  allusion  to  a  real  person,  the 

*  As  to  the  danger  of  our  falling  into  extravagance,  see  near  the 
end  of  this  chapter. 


374  ENERGY    OF    STYLE. 

longer  possess  any  special  force  ;  but  in  the  many  that  never 
wear  out,  and  in  the  unlimited  range  of  new  invention  and 
combination,  metaphors  present  to  the  orator  an  inexhaust- 
ible source  of  energetic  expression.  It  is  imagination  that 
must  produce  them,  and  good  taste  that  must  regulate  their 
use.  Inexperienced  speakers  often  employ  metaphors  that 
are  incongruous  in  themselves,  or  carried  out  into  ridicu- 
lous or  wearisome  detail.  But  much  will  depend  on  sub- 
ject, occasion  and  feeling.  Even  Shakspeare's  often  con- 
demned example  of  a  mixed  metaphor,  "To  take  arms 
against  a  sea  of  troubles,"  is  allowable  and  natural  in 
Hamlet,  when  frenzied  and  meditating  suicide,  and  speak- 
ing to  himself  alone.* 

The  SYNECDOCHE  is  also  favorable  to  energy.  When 
a  part  of  a  thing  is  taken  for  the  whole,  or  the  species  for 
the  genus,  the  expression  is  apt  to  be  more  animated  and 
suggestive;  just  as  we  have  already  seen  that  particular 
or  specific  terms  are  more  energetic  than  general  terms. 
"  They  shall  beat  their  swords  into  ploughshares,  and  their 
spears  into  pruning-hooks,"  is  immensely  more  forcible  than 
to  say  in  general  that  they  will  convert  their  weapons  of 
war  into  implements  of  agriculture. 

Hyperbole,  or  saying  more  than  is  meant,  is  very 
natural  to  a  person  so  absorbed  in  the  contemplation  of  a 
particular  object  or  subject  as  to  exaggerate  its  comparative 
importance,  or  to  one  so  intensely  excited  that  all  ordinary 
expression  seems  to  him  tame.  It  is  also  allowable  in  any 
case  where  one  knows  that  the  exaggerated  language  need 
not  be  misunderstood,  and  desires  to  make  a  deep  impres- 
sion as  to  an  important  fact.  "  And  there  are  also  many 
other  things  which  Jesus  did,  the  which,  if  they  should  be 
written  every  one,  I  suppose  that  even  the  world  itself  could 
not  contain  the  books  that  should  be  written."  (John 
21     25.)      Such   expressions   are  particularly  natural  to 

*Comp.  Haven's  Rhet.,  p.  111. 


ENERGY    OF    STYLE.  377 

called  on  actually  to  answer.  It  should  be  observed  that 
one  is  liable  sometimes  to  fall  as  it  were  into  an  interroga- 
tive mood,  and  throw  so  much  of  his  discourse  into  the 
form  of  questions,  as  to  produce  the  most  disagreeable 
species  of  monotony.  It  is  important  to  be  on  our  guard 
against  this,  and  when  upon  any  occasion  conscious  of  it, 
to  break  away  by  a  resolute  effort. 

Dramatism  gives  to  discourse  a  life  and  vigor  and  charm 
that  can  in  scarcely  any  other  way  be  equalled.  To  per- 
sonate some  character  and  speak  his  sentiments,  to  introduce 
an  objector  stating  his  objections,  and  answer  them  point 
by  point,  to  sustain  a  dialogue  between  two  supposed  per- 
sons, to  reproduce  some  scene  by  dramatic  description,  are 
methods  which  all  effective  speakers  more  or  less  employ, 
and  examples  of  which  abound  in  Demosthenes,  Chrysos- 
tora,  Spurgeon.  In  the  pulpit,  dramatism  must  usually  be 
kept  within  somewhat  narrow  limits,  and  must  always  be 
regulated  by  good  taste  and  sobriety  of  feeling.  Especially 
do  imitations  of  action  and  tone  require  to  be  carefully 
guarded,  lest  they  become  ridiculous,  or  at  any  rate  un- 
suitable to  devout  discourse.* 

As  to  the  whole  matter  of  energy  of  style,  grave  mistakes 
are  often  committed.  Some  speakers  imagine  that  they 
must  be  energetic  in  style  and  manner  even  when  it  does 
not  suit  the  subject,  or  does  not  accord  with  their  actual 
feelings.  Now  it  is  only  strong  feeling  that  prompts  im- 
passioned or  in  any  wise  energetic  expression.  To  gain  the 
latter  we  must  cultivate  our  sensibilities,  and  must  keep  the 
mind  in  contact  with  the  subject  to  be  treated  until  the 
corresponding  emotions  are  excited.f  If  little  or  no  emo- 
tion really  exists,  the  language  of  passion  produces  no 
effect,  or  even  a  contrary  effect  to  that  desired.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  important  lessons  a  preacher  can  learn,  not  to 

*  Comp.  Yinet,  p.  459-65. 
f  Comp.  above  on  Application,  Part  I,  chap.  8. 
82« 


376  ENERGY    OF    STYLE. 

Word  of  God.  Personifications  of  the  Church  are  often 
carried  further  in  preaching  than  is  wise.  Our  language 
presents  unusual  facilities  for  this  figure,  from  its  unique 
peculiarity  of  treating  all  names  of  things  as  of  the 
neuter  gender,  so  that  to  call  an  inanimate  object  "he"  or 
"  she  "  -Nvill  at  once  make  a  personification.  We  must  be 
careful  not  to  abuse  this  advantage.  All  high -wrought 
imagery  must  be  sparingly  employed.* 

Apostrophe  consists  in  "turning  away"  from  our 
audience,  and  addressing  some  person  or  thing,  usually 
one  of  which  we  had  been  speaking.  If  it  be  a  thing  that 
is  thus  addressed,  there  is  also  a  personification.  "It  can- 
not be  that  a  prophet  perish  out  of  Jerusalem.  O  Jeru- 
salem, Jerusalem,  which  killest  the  prophets,"  etc.  (Luke 
13  :  33.)  But  there  may  be  apostrophe  to  a  real  person, 
and  there  is  often  personification  when  we  only  speak  of 
the  object  personified,  without  addressing  it.  Apostrophe 
properly  belongs  to  the  language  of  passion,  and  even 
as  such,  it  must  not  occur  too  frequently,  nor  be  too  long 
continued.  A  preacher  standing  with  upturned  eyes,  and 
addressing  some  Scripture  character,  departed  friend,  or 
personified  virtue,  cannot  go  on  through  many  sentences. 

Exclamation  is  sometimes  akin  to  apostrophe,  but 
properly  distinct.  Impassioned  preachers  are  somewhat 
apt  to  use  it  too  freely.  Some  say  oh !  ah !  or  alas !  so 
often  that  it  loses  all  power.  On  the  other  hand,  we  must 
not  be  fastidious  in  avoiding  exclamation,  where  it  is 
naturally  prompted  by  actual  feeling. 

Interrogation  is  with  all  orators  a  frequent  means  of 
giving  animation  to  discourse.  Not  only  may  an  antago- 
nist, real  or  imaginary,  be  questioned,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  awaken  lively  interest  on  the  part  of  the  hearers,  but 
questions  are  constantly  addressed  to  the  hearers  thera- 
eelves.     Their  minds   are  thus   aroused  somewhat  as  if 

*Comp.  Whately,  p.  328-30;  Haven,  p.  145-55. 


ENERGY    OF    STYLE.  377 

culled  on  actually  to  answer.  It  should  be  observed  that 
one  is  liable  sometimes  to  fall  as  it  were  into  an  interroga- 
tive mood,  and  throw  so  much  of  his  discourse  into  the 
form  of  questions,  as  to  produce  the  most  disagreeable 
species  of  monotony.  It  is  important  to  be  on  our  guard 
against  this,  and  when  upon  any  occasion  conscious  of  it, 
to  break  away  by  a  resolute  effort. 

Dramatism  gives  to  discourse  a  life  and  vigor  and  charm 
that  can  in  scarcely  any  other  way  be  equalled.  To  per- 
sonate some  character  and  speak  his  sentiments,  to  introduce 
an  objector  stating  his  objections,  and  answer  them  point 
by  point,  to  sustain  a  dialogue  between  two  supposed  per- 
sons, to  reproduce  some  scene  by  dramatic  description,  are 
methods  which  all  effective  speakers  more  or  less  employ, 
and  examples  of  which  abound  in  Demosthenes,  Chrysos- 
tom,  Spurgeon.  In  the  pulpit,  dramatism  must  usually  be 
kept  within  somewhat  narrow  limits,  and  must  always  be 
regulated  by  good  taste  and  sobriety  of  feeling.  Especially 
do  imitations  of  action  and  tone  require  to  be  carefully 
guarded,  lest  they  become  ridiculous,  or  at  any  rate  un- 
suitable to  devout  discourse.* 

As  to  the  whole  matter  of  energy  of  style,  grave  mistakes 
are  often  committed.  Some  speakers  imagine  that  they 
must  be  energetic  in  style  and  manner  even  when  it  does 
not  suit  the  subject,  or  does  not  accord  with  their  actual 
feelings.  Now  it  is  only  strong  feeling  that  prompts  im- 
passioned or  in  any  wise  energetic  expression.  To  gain  the 
latter  we  must  cultivate  our  sensibilities,  and  must  keep  the 
mind  in  contact  with  the  subject  to  be  treated  until  the 
corresponding  emotions  are  excited.f  If  little  or  no  emo- 
tion really  exists,  the  language  of  passion  produces  no 
effect,  or  even  a  contrary  effect  to  that  desired.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  important  lessons  a  preacher  can  learn,  not  to 

*  Comp.  Vinet,  p.  459-65. 
f  Comp.  above  on  Application,  Part  I,  chap.  8. 
82^ 


378  ENERGY    OF    STYLE. 

ji  assume  earnestness  of  style  or  delivery,  when  he  has  not 

"  earnestness  of  feeling. 

Another  serious  and  very  common  mistake  is  in  the 
effort  to  maintain  uniform  energy  throughout  a  discourse. 
"An  author  should  guard  against  the  vain  ambition  of 
expressing  everything  in  an  equally  high-wrought,  brilliant, 
and  forcible  style.  The  neglect  of  this  caution  often  occa- 
sions the  imitation  of  the  best  models  to  prove  detrimental. 
When  the  admiration  of  some  fine  and  animated  passages 
leads  a  young  writer  to  take  these  passages  for  his  general 
model,  and  to  endeavor  to  make  every  sentence  he  com- 
poses equally  fine,  he  will,  on  the  contrary,  give  a  flatness 
to  the  w^hole,  and  destroy  the  effect  of  those  portions  which 
would  have  been  forcible  if  they  had  been  allowed  to  stand 

B  prominent.  To  brighten  the  dark  parts  of  a  picture,  pro- 
duces much  the  same  result  as  if  one  had  darkened  the 
bright  parts  ;  in  either  case  there  is  a  want  of  relief  and 
contrast;  and  Composition,  as  well  as  Painting,  has  its 
lights  and  shades,  which  must  be  distributed  with  no  less 
skill,  if  we  would  produce  the  desired  effect."  * 

In  highly  passionate  speaking  there  must  be  variety, 
alternation.  In  any  intense  physical  exertion,  one  needs 
frequent  change  of  posture,  so  as  to  bring  different  muscles 
into  play,  and  let  them  relieve  each  other.  The  same 
thing  is  true  as  to  mental  excitement.f  Neither  the 
hearers,  nor  even  the  speaker  himself,  can  keep  up  a  very 
high  excitement  for  more  than  a  brief  period,  certainly 
not  in  a  natural  and  healthy  way.  Now  the  most  complete 
alternation  here  would  be  from  pathos  or  passion  to  humor. 
The  humorous  writers  and  speakers  almost  always  intro- 
duce pathetic  passages  merely  for  relief,  and  vice  versa  the 
principle  applies  equally  well.  But  the  preacher  cannot 
relieve  the  minds  of  his  hearers  by  any  but  rare  and  deli- 
cate touches  of   humor.     He   may,  however,  again  and 

*  Whatelj,  p.  334.  f  Comp.  Spencer  on  Style,  p.  36. 


ENERGY    OF    STYLE.  379 

again  descend  from  the  impassioned  to  the  quiet  and  easy, 
may  cause  passion  to  swell  by  successive  waves,  receding 
in  order  to  advance  farther ;  and  he  must  in  other  ways 
vary  the  emotions  excited,  just  so  far  as  will  be  compatible 
with  his  specific  design. 

And  great  mistakes  are  also  made  as  to  what  constitutes 
energy  of  style.  There  is  a  jerky,  convulsive  energy,  like 
that  of  Carlyle,  which  is  by  no  means  worthy  of  imitation. 
There  is  an  over-wrought,  exaggerated  energy,  which  Lon- 
ginus  describes  as  **  not  sublime,  but  sky-scraping,"  and  a 
turgid,  inflated,  would-be  energy,  which  is  nothing  but 
bombast.  And  in  this  stirring  age,  especially  among  our 
American  people,  there  is  a  tendency  to  be  prodigiously 
excited  upon  small  occasion,  to  use  superlatives,  exagger- 
ated epithets,  and  impassioned  imagery,  where  they  are 
unnecessary,  and  therefore  inappropriate.* 

*  Comp.  above,  Part  III,  chap.  1,  ^  1.  In  the  Dialogue  de  Ora- 
toribus  (printed  with  the  works  of  Tacitus),  chap.  20,  22,  there 
may  be  found  a  remarkable  account  of  the  false  taste  prevailing  about 
A.  D.  75,  which  was  constantly  essaying  to  strike  or  to  dazzle,  and 
which  reckoned  Cicero  tame  and  dull. 


380  ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

ELEGANCE   OF   STYLE. 

ELEGANCE  of  style  is  the  product  of  imagination, 
alone  or  in  combination  with  passion,  and  operating 
under  the  control  of  good  taste.  Any  exercise  of  taste  com- 
prises an  emotion  and  a  judgment.  The  emotion  excited 
by  beauty  or  by  its  opposite,  is  involuntary;  but  the  judg- 
ment that  a  certain  object,  idea,  or  expression  is  beautiful 
or  the  contrary,  can  be  controlled  and  corrected,  and  the 
internal  standard  by  which  we  judge,  admits  of  indefinite 
improvement.  He  who  would  attain  elegance  of  style,  then, 
must  on  the  one  hand  cultivate  imagination  and  sensibility, 
and  on  the  other  must  seek,  by  thoughtful  contemplation  of 
the  truly  beautiful,  to  improve  his  taste.* 

Elegance,  in  speaking,  is  less  important  than  perspicuity 
or  energy,  but  it  greatly  contributes  to  the  objects  of  even 
the  most  serious  discourse.  Real  elegance  will  of  course  be 
widely  modified  by  subject,  occasion  and  design;  and  thus 
modified,  it  is  free  from  all  just  objection,  and  worthy  of 
very  earnest  pursuit. 

Aristotle  remarks:  "The  first  style  of  rhetoric  was 
formed  on  that  of  poetry,  witness  the  style  of  Gorgias  ;  and 
even  at  the  present  time  the  majority  of  ignorant  people 
fancy  that  such  orators  speak  most  delightfully ;  this  how- 
ever is  not  the  case,  but  the  style  of  poetry  and  that  of 
prose  is  distinct."  f  The  principal  object  of  the  poet  is  to 
give  pleasure;  that  of  the  orator  is  to  convince,  impress, 

*Comp   above,  Part  III,  chap.  1,  g  2,  2,  on  Improvement  in  Style. 
fRhet.  Ill,  1. 


ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE.  381 

persuade.  For  the  former,  beauty  is  the  most  important 
element  of  style  ;  for  the  latter,  it  is  thoroughly  subordinate 
to  perspicuity  and  force.  There  is  a  similar,  though  not 
equal  difference  between  a  history  and  a  romance.  In  holi- 
day speeches,  and  all  set  orations,  to  please  becomes  a  more 
prominent  object,  and  here  the  style  of  poetry  is  more 
nearly  approached. 

This  important  difference  between  oratory  and  poetry 
is  strikingly  illustrated  by  Adam  Smith,  who  contrasts 
dancing  with  walking,  and  singing  with  speaking. 

•'Were  I  to  attempt  to  discriminate  between  Dancing  and  any 
other  kind  of  movement,  I  should  observe,  that  though  in  perform- 
ing any  ordinarj' action,  —  in  walking,  for  example,  across  the  room, 
a  person  may  manifest  both  grace  and  agility,  yet  if  he  betrays  the 
least  intention  of  showing  either,  he  is  sure  of  offending  more  or  less, 
and  we  never  fail  to  accuse  him  of  some  degree  of  vanity  and  affec- 
tation. In  the  performance  of  any  such  ordinary  action,  every  one 
wishes  to  appear  to  be  solely  occupied  about  the  proper  purpose  of 
the  action  ;  if  he  means  to  show  either  grace  or  agility,  he  is  care- 
ful to  conceal  that  meaning  ;  and  in  proportion  as  he  betrays  it, 
which  he  almost  always  does,  he  offends.  In  Dancing,  on  the  con- 
trary, every  one  professes  and  avows,  as  it  were,  the  intention  of 
displaying  some  degree  either  of  grace  or  of  agility,  or  of  both.  The 
display  of  one  or  other,  or  both  of  these  qualities,  is,  in  reality,  the 
proper  purpose  of  the  action  ;  and  there  can  never  be  any  disagree- 
able vanity  or  aflfectation  in  following  out  the  proper  purpose  of  any 
action.  When  we  say  of  any  particular  person,  that  he  gives  him- 
self many  affected  airs  and  graces  in  Dancing,  we  mean  either  that 
he  exhibits  airs  and  graces  unsuitable  to  the  nature  of  the  Dance, 
or  that  he  exaggerates  those  which  are  suitable.  Every  Dance  is,  in 
reality,  a  succession  of  airs  and  graces  of  some  kind  or  other,  which, 
if  I  may  say  so,  profess  themselves  to  be  such.  The  steps,  gestures, 
and  motions  which,  as  it  were,  avow  the  intention  of  exhibiting  a 
succession  of  such  airs  and  graces,  are  the  steps,  gestures,  and  mo- 
tions which  are  peculiar  to  Dancing The  distinction  between 

the  sounds  or  tones  of  Singing,  and  those  of  Speaking,  seems  to  be 
of  the  same  kind  with  that  between  the  steps,  &c.,  of  Dancing,  and 
those  of  any  other  ordinary  action.   Though  in  Speakipg  a  person  may 


382  ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE. 

show  a  very  agreeable  tone  of  voice,  yet  if  he  seems  to  intend  to  Bho\i 
it,  — if  he  appears  to  listen  to  the  sound  of  his  own  voice,  and  as  it 
were  to  tune  it  into  a  pleasing  modulation,  he  never  fails  to  offend, 
as  guilty  of  a  most  disagreeable  affectation.  In  Speaking,  as  in 
every  other  ordinary  action,  we  expect  and  require  that  the  speaker 
should  attend  only  to  the  proper  purpose  of  the  action, — the  clear 
and  distinct  expression  of  what  he  has  to  say.  In  Singing,  on  the 
contrary,  every  one  professes  the  intention  to  please  by  the  tone 
and  cadence  of  his  voice;  and  he  not  only  appears  to  be  guilty  of 
no  disagreeable  affectation  in  doing  so,  but  we  expect  and  require 
that  he  should  do  so  To  please  by  the  Choice  and  Arrangement 
of  agreeable  sounds,  is  the  proper  purpose  of  all  music,  vocal  as  well 
as  instrumental ;  and  we  always  expect  that  every  one  should  at- 
tend to  the  proper  purpose  of  whatever  action  he  is  performing.  A 
person  may  appear  to  sing,  as  well  as  to  dance,  affectedly  ;  he  may 
endeavor  to  please  by  sounds  and  tones  which  are  unsuitable  to  the 
nature  of  the  song,  or  he  may  dwell  too  much  on  those  which  are 
suitable  to  it.  The  disagreeable  affectation  appears  to  consist  al- 
ways, not  in  attempting  to  please  by  a  proper,  but  by  some  improper 
modulation  of  the  voice."  * 

So  in  poetry  the  "  proper  purpose  "  is  to  give  pleasure  ; 
and  we  simply  require  that  it  be  skilfully  adapted  to  that 
purpose.  If  poetry  also  instructs,  or  moves  to  action,  that 
is  something  incidental,  or  subordinate  to  its  main  design. 
The  same  thing  is  true  of  novels,  and  all  other  prose  writ- 
ings belonging  to  what  is  called  "  light  literature."  But 
in  oratory,  as  we  have  seen,  the  proper  purpose  is  very  dif- 
ferent, and  entertainment,  the  gratification  of  taste,  has 
place  only  as  subsidiary  to  conviction  and  persuasiop.  Es- 
pecially is  this  true  of  the  preacher,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
everywhere  a  practical  and  thoroughly  serious,  if  not  a 
uniformly  solemn  purpose.  And  to  preaching  beyond 
almost  every  other  variety  of  public  speaking,  a}>plies  the 
following  instructive  and  convincing  passage  from  Henry 
Rogers : 

*'If  a  speaker  is  in  earnest,  he  never  employs  his  imagination  as 
•Adam  Smith,  quoted  by  Whately,  p.  386. 


ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE.  383 

Ihe  poet  does,  merely  to  delight  us,  nor  indeed  to  delijrht  us  at  all  — 
except  as  appropriate  imagery,  though  used  for  another  object, 
necessarily  imparts  pleasure.  For  this  reason,  illustrations  are 
selected  always  with  reference  to  their  force  rather  than  their  beauty  ; 
and  are  very  generally  marked  more  by  their  homely  propriety  than 

by  their  grace  and  elegance Everything  marks  the  man  intent 

upon  serious  business,  whose  sole  anxiety  is  to  convey  his  meaning 
with  as  much  precision  and  energy  as  possible  to  the  minds  of  his 
auditors.  But  with  the  poet,  whose  very  object  is  to  delight  us,  or 
even  with  the  prose  writer,  in  those  species  of  prose  which  have  the 
same  object,  the  case  is  widely  different.  He  may  employ  two  or 
more  images,  if  they  are  but  appropriate  and  elegant,where  the  orator 
would  employ  but  one,  and  that  perhaps  the  simplest  and  homeliest ; 
he  may  throw  in  an  epithet  merely  to  suggest  some  picturesque 
circumstance,  or  to  give  greater  minuteness  and  vivacity  to  descrip- 
tion; he  may  sometimes  indulge  in  a  more  flowing  and  graceful 
expression  than  the  orator  would  venture  upon;  that  is,  whenever 
harmony  will  better  answer  his  object  than  energy.  What  does  it 
matter  to  him  who  is  walking  for  walking's  sake,  how  long  he  lin- 
gers amidst  the  beautiful,  or  how  often  he  pauses  to  drink  in  at 
leisure  the  melody  and  the  fragrance  of  nature?  But  the  man  who 
is  pressing  on  to  his  journey's  end  cannot  afford  time  for  such  luxu- 
rious loitering.  The  utmost  he  can  do  is  to  snatch  here  and  there 
a  homely  floweret  from  the  dusty  hedge-row,  and  eagerly  pursue 
his  way.  So  delicate  is  the  perception  attained  by  a  highly  culti- 
vated taste  of  the  proprieties  of  all  grave  and  earnest  composition, 
that  it  not  only  feels  at  enmity  with  the  meretricious  or  viciously 
ornate,  but  immediately  perceives  that  the  greatest  beauties  of  cer- 
tain species  of  prose  composition  would  become  little  better  than 
downright  bombast,  if  transplanted  into  any  composition  the  object 
of  which  was  serious.  We  may  illustrate  this  by  referring  to  a 
passage  of  acknowledged  beauty,  —  the  description,  in  the  'Anti- 
quary,' of  the  sunset  preceding  the  storm  there  so  grandly  delin- 
eated. *  The  sun  was  now  resting  his  huge  disc  upon  the  edge  of 
the  level  ocean,  and  gilded  the  accumulation  of  towering  clouds 
through  which  he  had  travelled  the  livelong  day,  and  which  now 
assembled  on  all  sides,  like  misfortunes  and  disasters  around  a 
sinking  empire  and  falling  monarch.  Still,  however,  his  dying 
splendor  gave  a  sombre  magnificence  to  the  massive  congregation 
of  vapors,  forming  out  of  their  unsubstantial  gloom  the  show  6f 
pyramids  and  towers,  some  touched  with  gold,  some  with  purple, 


384  ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE. 

some  with  a  hue  of  deep  and  dark  red.  The  distant  sea,  stretched 
beneath  this  varied  and  gorgeous  canopy,  lay  almost  portentously 
still,  reflecting  back  the  dazzling  and  level  beams  of  the  descending 
luminary,  and  the  splendid  coloring  of  the  clouds  amidst  which. he 
was  setting.'  No  one  in  reading  this  passage  can  help  admiring  its 
graphic  beauty  :  the  numerous  epithets,  considering  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  employed,  —  that  of  detaining  the  mind  upon 
every  picturesque  circumstance,  and  giving  vividness  and  fidelity  to 
the  whole  picture, — appear  no  more  frequent  than  they  ought  to 
be.  But  suppose  some  naval  historian,  who  has  occasion  to  narrate 
the  movements  of  two  hostile  fleets  (separated  on  the  eve  of  battle 
by  a  storm),  should  suddenly  pause  to  introduce  a  similar  descrip- 
tion ;  —  would  not  the  efi"ect  be  so  ridiculous,  that  no  one  could  read 
to  the  end  of  the  passage  without  bursting  into  laughter?  "  * 

We  can  now  easily  understand  why  some  preachers  care 
too  much  for  embellishment.  They  take  a  wrong  view  of 
their  office,  or  at  any  rate  are  influenced  by  a  wrong 
motive.  They  aim  too  much  at  entertaining,  at  gratifying 
the  audience.  They  do  not  feel  the  seriousness  of  their 
work,  the  solemnity  of  their  position.  While  perhaps 
really  desiring  to  do  good,  they  dwell  too  much  on  the 
necessity  of  pleasing  the  people  in  order  to  profit  them. 
And  aware  that  many  hearers  care  only,  or  chiefly,  to  be 
entertained,  aware  that  they  talk  in  going  home  not  of  the 
truth,  but  of  the  performance  and  the  performer,  such 
preachers  too  readily  yield  to  this  apparent  demand,  and 
set  it  before  their  minds  as  a  distinct  if  not  a  principal 
object  to  please.  But  if  the  earnest  desire  to  do  men  good 
quite  swallows  up  the  wish  to  please  them,  if  the  sense  of 
responsibility  to  God  rises  superior  to  concern  for  men's  crit- 
icism; then  the  preacher's  style  will  have  only  such  modest 
beauty  as  is  easily  kept  in  its  proper  place.  And  when  he 
is  tempted  to  yield  to  the  false  taste  of  many,  it  may  help 
him  to  remember  that  the  desire  to  please  is  very  apt  to 

'*  Henry  Rogers  on  Sacred  Eloquence,  in  "  Reason  and  Faith,  and  other 
Essays/'  p.  213. 


ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE.  385 

defeat  itself  His  elaborate  prettinesses  will  not  only  grieve 
the  devout  and  disgust  the  really  intelligent,  bat  will  soon 
pall  upon  the  taste  of  those  he  sought  to  win,  who  will  have 
all  the  while  in  their  hearts  a  vague  feeling  that  this  sort 
of  thing  is  unworthy  of  hira,  and  will  presently  begin  to 
find  it  rather  tiresome  to  themselves.* 

On  the  other  hand,  some  preachers  very  unwisely  take 
pains  to  avoid  the  beautiful.  There  are  thoughts  which 
naturally  incline  to  blossom  into  beauty;  why  sternly 
repress  them  ?  There  are  grand  conceptions  which  sponta- 
neously clothe  themselves  in  robes  of  majesty,  and  march 
forth  in  a  stately  but  native  dignity.  And  besides  subjects 
that  naturally  shine  and  blaze,  there  are  many  very  com- 
monplace topics  which  the  preacher  must  be  constantly 
bringing  to  view,  and  which  will  gain  a  much  more  inter- 
ested attention,  from  even  the  most  devout  hearers,  if  deli- 
cately touched  with  some  hues  of  fancy.  It  is  a  noble  thing 
thus  to  take  important  truths  which  have  grown  dull  by 
use,  and  give  them  new  brightness.  This  must  not  go  so 
far  that  the  attention  of  the  speaker,  and  so  that  of  the 
hearers,  is  drawn  to  the  beauteous  garb  rather  than  to  the 
truth  itself  Far  better  leave  the  truth  unadorned,  to  win 
such  notice  as  it  can.f  But  this  excess  will  be  readily 
avoided,  if  one  has  good  taste  and  a  serious  purpose.  Vinet 
has  well  said  that  the  really  beautiful  excludes  the  pretty. 

They  who  are  so  afraid  of  elegance,  forget  that  a  native 
beauty,  and  even  some  ornament  of  style,  is  not  of  neces- 
sity unfavorable  to  perspicuity.^  They  forget  that  the 
beautiful  and  the  useful  are  in  nature  often  closely  con- 
nected ;  that  the  blossoms  of  the  apple-tree,  and  the  silks 
of  the  corn,  are  remarkable  for  their  rich  and  varied,  but 
delicate  beauty.     The  fanciful  style  of  some  preachers  is 

*Comp.  Vinet,  p.  349. 

f  Comp.  as  to  Illustrations,  Part  I,  chap.  7,  §  3. 
X  Oomp.  Whately,  p.  305. 
33 


386  ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE. 

as  little  appropriate  as  if  one  called  to  build  the  family  a 
home,  should  build  a  garden  bower ;  but  a  family  mansion 
may  be  thoroughly  suited  to  convenience  and  comfort,  and 
yet  have  a  pleasing  form,  and  even  a  certain  moderate 
ornamentation. 

True  energy  of  style  is  often  at  the  same  time  elegant. 
Impassioned  feeling  often  cannot  express  itself  otherwise 
than  by  bold  images,  and  these,  though  chosen  for  their 
strength,  may  also  have  an  unstudied  beauty.  A  painted 
cheek  is  an  abomination  ;  but  let  there  be  high  health,  and 
animated  feeling,  and  without  an  effort  or  a  thought  the 
cheek  takes  to  itself  a  color  most  bright  and  fair.  The 
Creator  meant  that  it  should  be  so  ;  are  you  wiser  than  the 
Creator  ? 

It  should  be  added  that  quotations,  whether  of  verse  or 
prose,  which  are  made  merely  or  even  chiefly  for  their 
beauty,  can  never  be  appropriate  in  preaching.  The  flowers 
suitable  in  serious  discourse  are  never  artificial  flowers. 
Especially  unbecoming  is  the  introduction  of  ornamental 
passages  from  poets  well  known  to  be  grossly  irreligious. 
Some  preachers  make  themselves  worse  than  ridiculous  by 
"  spouting  "  Byron. 

Elegance  of  style  depends  especially  upon  terms,  arrange- 
ment, and  imagery  ;  and  there  is  much  true  elegance  in  that 
simplicity  of  style  which  is,  on  every  account,  so  much  to  be 
desired. 

1.  The  most  energetic  lerms  are  often  at  the  same  time  the 
most  elegant ;  so  that  we  gain  the  latter  excellence  while 
seeking  the  former.*  But  this  is  not  always  the  case. 
Some  highly  forcible  expressions  have  to  be  avoided  because 
they  are  indecent  or  vulgar.  And  if  ever  slang  phrases  are 
employed  by  a  preacher,  it  ought  to  be  under  very  peculiar 
circumstances.  Ideas  which  are  too  painful  must  not  be 
expressed  in  the  most  forcible  terms,  but  softened.     The  use 

*  Com] .  the  discussion  of  energetic  terms  in  the  foregoing  chapter. 


ELEGANCE     ,  F     STYLE.  387 

of  words  too  grand  for  the  subject,  is  avery  eommou  offence 
against  elegance.  Whether  an  energetic  expression  shall 
be  rejected  because  inelegant  is  a  question  on  which  no 
general  rule  can  be  given ;  each  case  must  be  decided  on 
its  own  merits.  But  words  which  really  weaken  the  ex- 
pression or  do  not  at  all  strengthen  it,  must  scarcely  ever 
be  employed  because  of  their  supposed  elegance. 

John  Foster,  in  one  of  his  celebrated  Essays,  urges  very 
earnestly  that  one  reason  for  the  aversion  of  men  of  taste 
to  evangelical  religion,  is  the  too  frequent  employment  in 
preaching  of  the  technical  terms  of  theology,  and  the  lan- 
guage of  Scripture.  He  himself  took  great  pains  to  avoid 
both.  No  doubt  there  is  sometimes  an  excessive  multipli- 
cation of  such  terms,  giving  the  sermon  a  dialect  quite  dif- 
ferent from  the  language  of  ordinary  life,  and  this  error 
good  taste  must  correct.  But  the  aversion  of  men  of  taste 
to  evangelical  religion  is  much  more  largely  the  cause  than 
the  effect  of  this  dislike  to  theological  and  scriptural  terms. 
They  wish  us  to  tone  down  and  refine  away  the  characteris- 
tic ideas  of  Scripture.* 

2.  As  to  the  arrangement  of  words,f  w^e  must  of  course 
avoid  harsh  or  disagreeable  combinations,  unless  they  are 
necessary  in  order  to  energy.  The  English  language  is 
specially  liable  to  the  frequent  recurrence  of  hissing  sounds, 
a,  s,  sh,  ch,  etc.J  Thus  the  phrase,  "  in  Jesus's  name,"  has 
an  unpleasant  sound. 

It  is  also  of  some  importance  to  avoid  the  too  frequent 
repetition  of  a  word  in  the  same  sentence  or  paragraph. 
Modern  taste  is  more  fastidious  about  this  than  was  that  of 

*  On  the  advantages  of  a  "Scriptural  tone"  in  sermons,  see 
Vinet,  p.  420. 

f  The  number  is  here  a  matter  of  subordinate  importance;  there 
may  be  an  elegant  conciseness  or  an  elegant  diffuseness,  though  the 
former  is  best  for  energy  and  often  best  for  perspicuity. 

J  Foreigners  sometimes  call  it  the  "  snake  language." 


388  ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE. 

the  ancients.  We  must  not,  through  mere  desire  for  variety, 
sacrifice  anything  important  to  the  sense,  a  fault  into  which 
our  common  English  version  has  very  often  fallen.  Thus 
in  Romans,  chap.  4,  the  word  '  reckon  '  occurs  very  often, 
being  the  leading  term  of  the  argument,  and  our  version 
renders  by  three  different  words,  '  count,'  '  reckon,'  and 
*  impute,'  thus  seriously  obscuring  the  verbal  connection, 
with  no  gain  but  that  of  variety.  Where,  however,  the 
connection  of  our  discourse  does  not  really  require  the 
repetition  of  the  same  word,  it  should  be  suitably  varied. 
There  is  in  English  special  danger  that  certain  pronouns, 
particularly  it,  that,  and  which,  and  the  preposition  of,  will 
be  too  often  repeated  in  quick  succession. 

Antithesis  will  frequently  contribute  to  elegance,  as  well 
as  to  energy ;  *  but  if  used  too  freely,  it  tends  to  stiffness, 
or  to  monotony. 

Alliteration  w^as  a  leading  peculiarity  of  Anglo-Saxon 
poetry,  and  is  still  somewhat  frequently  employed  in  poetry 
and  even  in  prose.  Chalmers  was  very  fond  of  it.  In 
prose,  especially  in  preaching,  it  should  be  used  but  rarely, 
and  in  an  easy,  unstudied  fashion. 

Sentences  are  of  course  most  elegant  when  smooth  and 
flowing.  But  better  harsh  strength  than  smooth  weakness. 
"  You  may  break  grammar,  if  you  break  hearts."  And 
a  constant  suecession  of  smooth  and  graceful  sentences  will 
inevitably  become  monotonous.  Gibbon  wearies  by  his 
uniform  stateliness.  Even  Prescott's  style  would  be  im- 
proved by  the  occasional  introduction  of  sentences  quite 
different  in  pattern. 

The  parts  of  a  sentence  are  often  so  proportioned  as  to 
give  it  a  rhythmical  movement.  Excited  feeling  naturally 
tends  to  rhythmical  expression,  as  is  sometimes  seen  even 
in  voice  and  gesture.  The  metre  of  pc  etry  is  one  species 
of  rhythm.     The  perfectly  regular  recurrence  of  the  same 

*  Comp.  in  the  preceding  chapter. 


ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE.  389 

movements  is,  however,  too  labored  and  deliberate  a  thing 
to  be  natural  in  speaking.  Accordingly,  as  Aristotle  re- 
marks, the  rhythm  of  oratory  must  never  become  metre. 
The  only  exception,  if  there  be  one,  is  in  funeral  orations 
and  the  like,  where  there  is  high-wrought  but  somewhat 
artificial  feeling,  and  where,  as  in  poetry,  the  principal 
object  is  to  please.*  It  is  not  proper,  in  order  to  rhythm 
in  prose,  to  throw  in  clauses  simply  for  that  purpose,  as  is 
often  done  by  Johnson  and  his  imitators ;  f  but  the  expres- 
sions may  be  so  chosen  and  so  coordinated  as  to  give  the 
whole  a  rhythmical  movement.  This  had  best  be  sponta- 
neous, but  need  by  no  means  be  unconscious  ;  one  may  law- 
fully give,  even  in  extemporaneous  speech,  a  certain  occa- 
sional and  subordinate  attention  to  the  proportion  of  clauses, 
the  harmonious  flow  of  the  sentence.  It  is  obvious  that 
the  cadence,  or  concluding  strain  of  a  sentence,  is  in  this 
respect  most  important.  Here,  as  was  seen  with  regard  to 
energy,  we  must  avoid  ending  with  a  number  of  unemphatic 
words  or  unaccented  syllables.  This  requires  special  care  in 
English.  We  have  not  only  a  great  number  of  such  termi- 
nations as  -osity,  -ility,  etc.,  but  many  words  like  occu- 
pancy, profitableness,  in  which,  according  to  the  Gothic 
tendency,  the  accent  remains  on  the  first  or  leading  syl- 
lable, no  matter  how  many  syllables  may  be  added,  and 
which  are  exceedingly  ill  -  suited  to  close  a  sentence. 
Moreover,  it  does  not  sound  well  if  a  sentence  containing 
one  or  more  long  clauses,  should  end  with  a  short  one. 
Many  points  of  this  sort  might  be  noted;  but  after  all, 
rhythm  in  prose  scarcely  requires  particular  rules,  being 
sufficiently  regulated  by  the  ear,  if  once  a  man  has 
learned  to  give  it  some  attention,  in  his  own  speaking 

*  Ic  some  pathetic  passages  of  Dickens,  a  whole  paragraph  might 
be  cut  up  into  blank  verse,  without  changing  a  word.  But  thia 
would  be  intolerable  in  an  appeal  to  a  jury,  or  in  a  sermon. 

f  Comp.  Whately,  p.  353-5. 
33* 


390  ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE. 

and  writing,  and  in  the  books  he  most  carefully  reads.  It 
is  highly  important  that  the  rhythm  of  successive  sentences 
should  frequently  vary,  as  is  eminently  the  case  in  Burke. 
Milton's  prose  has  great  majesty  of  movement,  but  with 
hardly  sufficient  variety,  and  with  some  sacrifice  of  practical 
directness.  Robert  Hall's  style  is  in  this  as  in  most  respects 
very  admirable ;  yet  even  he  would  have  more  power  with 
a  miscellaneous  audience  if  now  and  then  a  sentence  were 
in  its  ending  more  abrupt — some  quick,  sharp  saying  that 
would  crack  like  a  whip.  The  sermons  of  Addison  Alex- 
ander have  in  some  impassioned  passages  a  magnificent 
rhythm.* 

3.  Most  of  the  figures  which  give  energy  to  style,  will 
also  impart  elegance.  Those  which  especially  conduce  to 
elegance  are  simile,  metaphor,  and  personification.  A  com- 
parison, or- simile,  which  has  any  considerable  value  in  the 
way  of  elucidation  or  proof,  becomes  much  more  valuable 
if  also  beautiful,  because  then  it  gains  a  pleased  and  sym- 
pathizing attention.  That  which  does  not  contribute  to 
perspicuity  or  force,  must  never  be  introduced  merely  as 
an  ornament,  for  this,  as  we  have  seen,  belongs  to  poetry, 
but  not  to  practical  and  serious  discourse.  Every  one  is 
familiar  with  the  use  of  comparisons  and  metaphors  to 
elevate  or  to  degrade.  No  better  example  can  be  found 
than  that  often  quoted  from  Aristotle.f  The  poet  Simonides 
was  requested  by  the  victor  in  a  mule-race  to  write  a  tri- 
umphal ode;  and  offended  at  the  small  present  offered,  said 
he  would  not  write  about  half-asses,  which  was  the  common 

*  The  subject  of  melody  and  harmony  of  style  is  discussed  at 
length  by  Day,  p.  218-46.  See  also  Hoppin,  p.  293-7.  The  ancients 
were  much  more  attentive  to  this  matter  than  the  moderns.  Besides 
Aristotle  (Rhet.  VIII,  3),  Cicero  treats  of  rhythm  at  great  length, 
and  boasts  that  no  one  has  ever  before  discussed  it  so  thoroughly 
(Orator,  cap.  60-71).  Quintilian  is  more  brief  (IX,  4,  45-120),  and 
cautions  against  overdoing  the  thing.  With  this  caution,  Cicero's 
observations  will  be  found  quite  instructive. 

i  Rhet.  Ill,  2. 


ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE.  391 

Greek  name  for  mules.  But  a  larger  present  being  offered, 
he  addressed  them  in  an  ode  as  "daughters  of  storm-footed 
steeds."  It  is  much  to  know  which  side  of  a  subject  to 
select.* 

4.  No  quality  of  style  is  more  frequently  urged  as  an 
object  of  pursuit  than  Simplicity.  Every  one  feels  that 
simplicity  is  a  great  excellence.  But  when  we  attempt  to 
analyze  simplicity,  and  show  how  it  may  be  attained,  we 
are  apt  to  find  unexpected  difficulty.  The  opposite  of  a 
simple  style  would  seem  to  be  one  that  is  involved,  or  that 
is  too  elaborate,  or  that  is  overloaded  with  ornament.  In 
the  first  case  we  might  say  that  a  simple  style  does  not  roll 
up  an  idea  in  manifold  clauses  and  sentences,  which  we 
must  painfully  unroll  in  order  to  perceive  it,  but  spreads 
out  the  idea  at  once  to  our  view ;  that  it  is  direct,  and  easy 
to  understand.  Then  usage  extends  the  term  to  denote  a 
style  that  is  not  excessively  labored,  or  in  any  respect  arti- 
ficial, that  does  not  appear  to  be  produced  with  great  effort. 
And  in  a  particular  variety  of  this  use  we  mean  by  it  a 
style  that  has  no  elaborate  ornamentation. 

A  simple  style,  then,  as  it  unfolds  the  thought  at  once, 
will  be  perspicuous,  though  there  may  be  a  certain  kind 
of  perspicuity  where,  strictly  speaking,  there  is  not  sim- 
plicity. You  may  make  an  idea  plain  by  repeated  and 
varied  statement  and  illustration  ;  a  simple  style  makes  it 
plain  at  once.  In  this  respect  simplicity  demands  both  the 
conditions  of  perspicuity  we  have  heretofore  noticed ;  the 
language  must  be  such  as  the  hearers  will  easily  under- 
stand, and  it  must  exactly  express  the  idea.  A  man  is  not 
certainly  "simplifying "  a  thought  when  he  is  hammering 
it  by  prolonged  and  tedious  explanation.  He  must  find 
the  least  complicated,  the  most  direct  and  readily  intelligi- 
ble expression,  which  at  the  same  time  exactly  hits   aia 

*  Compare  what  is  said  of  figures  above  in  chap.  ?,  4 ;  also  on 
Dlustration,  above,  Part  I,  chap.  7. 


392  ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE. 

meaning.  Men  often  use  familiar  words,  but  do  not  so 
choose  and  connect  them  as  to  make  their  style  simple. 

In  the  other  case  a  simple  style  means  a  style  which  is 
not  labored  or  artificial,  which  flows  freely,  and  seems  to 
be  natural.  If  it  is  at  the  same  time  really  perspicuous, 
this  easy,  inelaborate  style  is  always  the  result  of  careful 
self-discipline,  and  the  expression  of  ideas  patiently  re- 
flected on  and  clearly  conceived.  There  are  peculiarities 
of  natural  tendency  in  this  as  in  all  respects,  but  it  is  a 
great  mistake  to  regard  true  simplicity  of  style  as  a  mere 
gift  of  nature.  One  must  habitually  think  his  thoughts 
into  clearness,  and  must  acquire  wide  and  easy  command 
of  the  best  resources  of  language,  if  he  would  be  able  to 
speak  simply,  and  yet  really  say  something. 

And  when  by  simplicity  we  mean  the  absence  of  exces- 
sive ornamentation,  let  us  beware  of  going  to  the  opposite 
extreme.  South  has  sharply  satirized  his  great  contem- 
porary Jeremy  Taylor,  by  extracting  from  his  writings  some 
specimens  of  over-wrought,  fanciful  ornament.  "  '  I  speak 
the  words  of  soberness,'  said  St.  Paul,  and  I  preach  the 
Gospel  not  with  the  '  enticing  words  of  man's  wisdom.' 
This  was  the  way  of  the  Apostle's  discoursing  of  things 
sacred.  Nothing  here  of  '  the  fringes  of  the  north  star  ; ' 
nothing  of  'nature's  becoming  unnatural;'  nothing  of 'the 
down  of  angels'  wings,  or  the  beautiful  locks  of  cheru- 
bims:'  no  starched  similitudes  introduced  with  a  'Thus 
have  I  seen  a  cloud  rolling  in  its  airy  mansion,'  and  the 
like.  No,  —  these  were  sublimities  above  the  rise  of  the 
Apostolic  spirit.  For  the  Apostles,  poor  mortals,  were 
content  to  take  lower  steps,  and  to  tell  the  world  in  plain 
terms  that  he  who  believed  should  be  saved,  and  that  he  who 
believed  not  sh()uld  be  damned.  And  this  was  the  dialect 
which  pierced  the  conscience,  and  made  the  hearers  cry 
jut,  Men  and  brethren,  what  shall  we  do  ?  ....  In  a  word, 
the  Apostles'  preaching  was  therefore  mighty  and  success- 
ful, because  plain,  natural  and  familiar,  and  by  no  means 


ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE.  393 

above  the  capacity  of  their  hearers :  nothing  being  more 
preposterous,  than  for  those  who  were  professedly  aiming 
at  men's  hearts,  to  miss  the  mark  by  shooting  over  their 
heads."  *  The  expressions  quoted  by  South  are,  at  least  as 
they  here  stand,  supremely  ridiculous  for  a  sermon ;  and 
unfortunately  they  are  sometimes  paralleled  in  our  own 
day.  But  simplicity  by  no  means  excludes  all  ornament 
in  all  cases.  Many  a  thought,  no  doubt,  is  "when  un- 
adorned, adorned  the  most,"  because,  like  a  statue  without 
drapery,  its  own  form  is  beautiful.  But,  as  we  have  here- 
tofore observed,  there  are  thoughts  which  naturally  so 
stimulate  the  imagination  that  of  its  own  accord  it  clothes 
them  in  a  garb  of  beauty.  And  there  is  many  a  truth 
which  must  have  some  touches  of  fancy,  or  it  is  not  fairly 
presented.  The  maiden  on  a  summer  evening,  arrayed  in 
simplest  w^hite,  yet  knows  how,  by  the  bit  of  ribbon  skil- 
fully placed,  or  the  rose-bud  in  her  hair,  to  give  the  whole 
a  modest  charm.  Shall  the  simple  garb  of  truth  be  denied 
a  like  advantage  ?  Wherever  simplicity  is  to  have  its  full 
attractiveness,  and  to  exert  its  true  power,  it  must  not  be 
bald  simplicity ;  there  is  sure  to  be  now  and  then  some 
little  quaintness  of  phrase  or  delicate  tinge  of  fancy,  some 
slight  felicity  of  expression,  which  lifts  it  above  the  vulgar 
or  the  commonplace.  In  using  colloquial  phrases,  those 
homely  English  idioms  which  have  such  power,  it  is  curi- 
ous to  observe  how  Bunyan,  or  Spurgeon,  will  divest  them 
of  vulgarity  and  give  them  an  air  almost  of  refinement,  by 
this  light  play  of  fancy. 

Two  things  ought  to  be  here  borne  in  mind.  The  worst 
of  all  affectations  in  style  is  the  affectation  of  simplicity. 
It  is  like  affected  modesty  in  an  immodest  woman.  And  a 
style  may  have  real  beauty  and  real  power  that  is  not 
simple.  The  processional  pomp  of  Milton's  grand  sen- 
tences, the  revolving  splendors  of  Chalmers,  the  lightnings 
and  auroras  of  Chrysostom  and  Jeremy  Taylor,  may  re- 
*  Quoted  by  Henry  Rogers,  p.  219. 


394  ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE. 

mind  us  that  simplicity  is  not  everything.  These  men, 
however,  are  often  simple ;  they  have  too  much  good  taste 
and  natural  feeling  to  employ  inflated  diction  when  speak- 
ing of  common  things.  And  so  those  who  seek  to  be 
habitually  simple  must  let  their  style  vary  according  to 
subject  and  feeling.  While  usually  confining  themselves 
to  those  medium  tones  which  suit  the  common  thought  and 
experience  of  mankind,  let  them  be  willing,  and  be  able, 
to  range  the  whole  gamut  of  expression,  to  rise  and  fall  as 
occasion  demands  or  passion  prompts. 

"The  constant  employment  of  one  species  of  phraseology, 
which  all  have  now  to  strive  against,  implies  an  undevel- 
oped faculty  of  language.     To  have  a  specific  style  is  to  be 

poor  in  speech As  in  a  fine  nature,  the  play  of  the 

features,  the  tones  of  the  voice  and  its  cadences,  vary  in 
harmony  with  every  thought  uttered  ;  so,  in  one  possessed 
of  a  fully-developed  power  of  speech,  the  mould  in  which 
each  combination  of  words  is  cast  w^ill  simply  vary  with, 

and  be  appropriate  to  the  sentiment The  perfect 

writer  will  express  himself  as  Junius,  when  in  the  Junius 
frame  of  mind ;  when  he  feels  as  Lamb  felt,  will  use  a  like 
familiar  speech  ;  and  ^wi\\  fall  into  the  ruggedness  of  Carlyle 
when  in  a  Carlylean  mood.  Now  he  will  be  rhythmical 
and  now  irregular ;  here  his  language  will  be  plain  and 
there  ornate ;  sometimes  his  sentences  will  be  balanced  and 
at  other  times  unsymmetrical ;  for  a  while  there  will  be 
considerable  sameness,  and  then  again  great  variety."  * 

From  all  this  it  will  appear  that  true  simplicity  of  style, 
which  is  at  once  intelligible,  which  has  an  easy  movement, 
a  natural  beauty  and  a  natural  variety,  requires  patient 
thought,  disciplined  imagination,  and  thorough  mastery  of 
language.f 

*  Spencer,  Essay  on  Style,  p.  46. 

f  In  the  way  of  caution  against  mistakes  as  to  simplicity,  see  a 
good  discussion  in  Moore's  Thoughts  on  Preaching  (London,  1869), 
chap.  6. 


IMAGINATION.  395 


CHAPTER  Y. 

IMAGINATION,  IN  ITS   KELATION  TO  ELOQUENCE. 

IMAGINATION,  as  we  have  already  seen,  is  among  the 
leading  characteristics  of  eloquence.*  It  plays  a  highly 
important  part  in  the  construction  of  discourse,  and  style, 
and  it  has  much  to  do  even  with  the  invention  of  materials. 
Though  repeatedly  referred  to,  under  these  several  heads, 
it  is  thought  to  require  at  this  point  some  more  particular 
discussion,  as  to  its  office  in  oratory,  and  the  means  of  its 
cultivation. 

§  1.      USES   OF   IMAGINATION   TO    THE    ORATOR. 

The  popular  conception  of  imagination  still  is,  that  it 
assists  the  orator  only  in  the  way  of  producing  high-wrought 
imagery,  in  letting  off  such  fire-works  of  fancy  as  sopho- 
mores affect,  and  half-educated  people  admire.  But  modern 
psychology  tends  more  and  more  to  assign  imagination  a 
high  position  and  a  wide  and  varied  domain.  It  is  coming 
to  be  recognized  as  giving  indispensable  aid  in  scientific 
research  and  philosophical  abstraction,  in  the  formation  of 
geometrical  and  ethical,  as  well  as  of  artistic  ideals,  in  the 
varied  tasks  of  practical  invention,  and  even  in  the  com- 
prehension and  conduct  of  practical  life.  When  entering 
some  strange  country,  or  when  brought  by  great  social  con- 
vulsions into  a  new  state  of  things,  most  men  are  unable, 
through  deficiency  of  imagination,  fully  to  realize  the  new 
situation,  and  promptly  to  seize  upon  the  central  and  con- 

♦  Comp.  iDtroduction,  g  2. 


396  IMAGINATION,   IN     ITS 

trolling  forces.  Accordingly  Napoleon  said,  "The  men  of 
imagination  rule  the  world." 

This  noble  faculty  is  possessed  in  a  high  degree  by  every 
true  orator.  Without  it,  a  man  may  be  instructive  and 
convincing,  may  influence  others  by  his  practical  energy, 
his  resolution  and  determination,  but  he  can  never  exert  the 
peculiar  power  of  eloquence.  A  preacher,  without  imagina- 
tion, may  be  respected  for  his  sound  sense,  may  be  loved 
for  his  homely  goodness,  but  he  will  not  move  a  congrega- 
tion, he  will  not  be  a  power  in  the  community.  If  on  the 
other  hand  he  have  a  perverted  or  an  undisciplined  imagina- 
tion, it  may  ruin  his  usefulness.  It  is  a  matter  on  which 
preachers  seldom  bestow  any  thoughtful  attention  ;  and  yet 
few  things  are  so  important  to  their  real  success,  as  the 
possession,  the  culture,  the  control,  of  imagination. 

The  terms  imagination  and  fancy  were  once  practical- 
ly equivalent.  The  latter,  as  shown  by  the  old  spelling 
phantsy,  is  a  corruption  of  the  Greek  term  phantasy,  which 
was  afterwards  reintroduced  in  its  longer  form,  and  assigned 
by  usage  to  special  senses.  (Compare  palsy  and  paralysis, 
and  several  other  cases.)  Addison  said  that  he  used  the 
words  imagination  and  fancy  indiscriminately.*  At  the 
present  time  some  writers,  particularly  Ruskin,  are  disposed 
to  claim  that  there  are  two  distinct  faculties  of  the  mind, 
which  they  would  denote  by  these  two  terms.  The  more 
common,  and  apparently  the  more  correct  opinion  is,  that 
what  we  call  imagination  and  fancy  are  but  diflerent  forms 
and  modes  of  exercise  of  the  same  faculty.  We  call  it  fancy 
when  playing  on  the  mere  surface  of  things,  imagination 
when  penetrating  to  the  heart,  the  essence ;  fancy  when 
sportive  or  cold,  imagination  when  passionate,  or  at  least 
serious.  Imagination  "  cannot  be  but  serious  ;  she  sees  too 
far,  too  darkly,  too  solemnly,  too  earnestly,  ever  to  smile. 
There  is  something  in  the  heart  of  everything,  if  we  can  reach 

•       *  Fleming,  Vocab.  of  Phil.,  p.  194. 


RELATION    TO    ELOQUENCE.  397 

it,  that  we  shall  not  be  inclined  to  laugh  at.  The  *  innumer- 
able laughter '  of  the  sea  is  on  its  surface,  not  in  the  deep."* 
1.  Imagination  is  employed  by  the  orator  in  the  con- 
struction of  discourse.  To  give  familiar  materials  any  fresh 
interest,  they  must  be  brought  into  new  combinations ;  and 
to  form  a  discourse  at  all,  the  materials  must  be  made  into 
a  complete  and  symmetrical  structure.  Piles  of  bricks  and 
lumber  and  sand  are  as  much  a  house,  as  the  mere  piling 
up  of  thoughts  will  constitute  a  discourse.  The  builder,  of 
palace  or  of  cabin,  works  by  constructive  imagination  ;  and 
it  is  the  same  faculty  that  builds  a  speech.  In  fact  imagina- 
tion, the  wonder-worker,  does  much  more  than  this.  It  is 
only  a  lower  imagination  that  takes  fragments  of  material, 
and  builds  them,  each  fragment  preserving  its  individual- 
ity, into  a  new  structure ;  high,  intense  imagination  fuses 
the  materials,  reduces  them  to  their  natural  elements,  and 
forms  of  them  a  structure  possessing  complete  unity.  The 
one  process  is  a  new  composition  of  fragments  ;  the  other  a 
new  organization  of  elements.  The  one  cements  the  mate- 
rials together,  or  at  best  welds  them  together ;  the  other 
makes  them  grow  together,  by  furnishing  a  principle  of 
vitality  which  takes  up  the  analyzed  material  and  organizes 

*Ruskin,  Modern  Painters,  Vol.  II,  p.  166.  On  imagination  in 
general,  see  especially  Hamilton's  Metaphysics,  and,  still  better  as 
to  this  subject,  Porter  on  the  Human  Intellect.  Ruskin,  as  just 
quoted,  has  an  extended  discussion,  of  great  value  to  public  speakers. 
See  also  Wordsworth's  preface  to  his  Poems.  A  good  lecture  by 
McCosh,  on  the  Imagination,  its  Use  and  Abuse,  has  been  republished 
as  a  tract  by  the  Amer.  Tr.  Soc.  The  practical  uses  of  imagination 
are  pleasantly  discussed  in  the  Contemporary  Review,  Sept.,  1860. 
Very  little  is  known  to  have  been  written  on  the  relations  of  imagina- 
tion to  eloquence.  There  is  an  address  by  Haven  on  "the Province 
of  Imagination  in  Sacred  Oratory,"  in  Bibl.  Sacra,  Jan.  1867,  or  in 
his  Studies  in  Philosophy  and  Theology,  1869.  The  subject  would 
reward  thorough  study,  and  admits  of  much  interesting  and  sugges- 
tive illustration. 
34 


398  IMAGINATION,   IN    ITS 

it  according  to  new  laws.  Imagination  does  not  create 
thought ;  but  it  organizes  thought  iuto  forms  as  new  as  the 
equestrian  statue  of  bronze  is  unlike  the  metallic  ores  when 
they  lay  in  the  mine.  This  constructing,  fashioning,  organ- 
izing function  of  the  imagination  is  exercised  in  forming 
a  poem,  or  a  story,  but  still  more  in  forming  a  discourse, 
where  there  is  far  greater  need  of  unity,  symmetry,  and 
adaptation  to  a  specific  design. 

And  not  only  is  it  needed  in  constructing  discourses,  but 
every  paragraph,  yea  every  sentence,  is  properly  a  work  of 
imagination,  a  work  of  art.  The  painter,  sculptor,  architect, 
does  not  fashion  merely  the  general  outline  of  his  work,  and 
leave  the  details  to  chance.  The  whole  is  but  the  parts 
taken  together.  Each  part  must  have  a  certain  complete- 
ness in  itself,  and  yet  must  be  in  itself  incomplete,  being 
but  a  fragment  of  one  whole.  So  must  it  be  in  the  con- 
struction of  discourse. 

2.  If,  as  Porter  says,  "  to  invent  or  discover,  is  always  to 
recombine,  to  adjust  in  new  positions  objects  or  parts  of 
objects  which  have  never  been  so  connected  before,"* 
then  imagination  has  no  little  to  do  with  the  invention  of 
thought.  What  are  its  precise  functions  in  this  respect, 
students  of  psychology  have  not  yet  settled.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  it  does  somehow  aid  us  in  penetrating  to  the 
heart  of  a  subject,  and  developing  it  from  within ;  that 
it  thus  assists  the  work  of  original  analysis,  as  well  as  that 
of  exposition  ;  though  Ruskin's  theory  of  "  the  penetrative 
imagination  "  is,  as  he  virtually  confesses,  uncertain  and 
obscure.f 

3.  The  orator  uses  imagination  in  the  production  of 
images.  Often  the  idea  he  wishes  to  present  can  itself  be 
converted  into  an  image.  Imagination  thus  gives  the 
masses  of  thought  a  definite  shape,  a  clear-cut  outline,  and 

*  On  the  Human  Intellect,  §  364. 

f  Modern  Painters,  Vol.  II,  p.  160  flF. 


EELATION    TO    ELOQUENCE.  399 

Bometimes  makes  them  stand  out  as  in  a  stereoscopic  picture. 
This  excites  the  imagination  of  another,  and  thus  affects 
his  feelings.  Objects  of  sense  affect  the  feelings  most 
powerfully,  and  images  more  closely  resemble  objects  of 
sense  than  do  mere  ideas.  Thus  if,  instead  of  dwelling 
upon  the  idea  of  benevolence,  we  bring  forward  the  image 
of  a  benevolent  man  or  a  benevolent  action,  it  is  much 
more  affecting.* 

And  whether  the  particular  idea  can  or  cannot  be  con- 
verted into  an  image,  we  may  associate  with  it,  may  group 
around  it,  by  resemblance  or  analogy,  or  by  contrast,  some 
other  idea  or  ideas  which  can  be  formed  into  images,  and 
which  will  reflect  their  light  and  splendor  upon  the  thought 
in  hand.  This  is  Illustration,  with  all  its  power  not  only 
to  gratify  the  taste,  but  to  assist  comprehension,  to  carry 
conviction,  and  to  awaken  emotion. 

It  is  thus  mainly  through  imagination  that  we  touch  the 
feelings,  and  thereby  bring  truth  powerfully  to  bear  upon 
the  will,  which  is  the  end  and  the  very  essence  of  eloquence. 
And  on  the  other  hand  passion  kindles  imagination.  Love, 
for  instance,  will  cause  the  dullest  mind  to  give  forth  some 
sparks  of  imagination.  Anger,  overwhelming  grief,  pas- 
sionate supplication,  will  often  struggle  to  express  itself 
by. means  of  the  boldest  images.  Thus  imagination  and 
passion  continually  act  and  react,  causing  the  one  to  glow 
more  brightly  and  the  other  to  grow  fiercer  in  its  blaze. 

4.  Another  use  of  imagination,  though  not  wholly  dis- 
tinct from  the  last,  is  in  realizing  and  depicting  what  the 
Scriptures  reveal.  We  have  already  noticed  how  much 
of  the  Bible  consists  of  narrative,  and  how  important  it  is 
that  the  preacher  should  be  able  vividly  to  describe  its 
scenes  and  events.f  "  Historical  imagination,"  in  repro 
ducing  the  past,  is  one  of  the  favorite  ideas  of  our  day. 

*  Comp.  Part  I,  chap.  8,  on  Application, 
f  See  Part  I,  chap.  6,  g  1. 


400  IMAGINATION,    IN    ITS 

In  the  exercise  of  it  great  care  must  be  taken  that  it  shall 
be  directed  and  controlled  by  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
times  reproduced,  and  true  sympathy  with  their  spirit,  or 
we  shall  carry  back  our  own  experiences  and  our  modern 
conceptions,  and  make,  as  historical  description  often  has 
made,  an  utterly  erroneous  representation.  But  with  this 
caution,  historical  imagination  may  be  declared  indispen- 
sable, not  only  to  description  of  Scripture  history,  but  to 
the  just  comprehension  of  the  whole  system  of  doctrine 
and  duty,  for  all  rests  upon  a  basis  of  fact.  Controversial- 
ists, for  example,  often  greatly  err,  from  failing  to  realize 
the  circumstances  of  the  primitive  age,  and  thus  miscon- 
ceiving the  precise  aim  of  many  a  lesson  or  observance. 

And  not  only  as  to  the  past.  Imagination  is  requisite 
if  w^e  are  justly  to  conceive  and  vividly  to  realize  the 
Scripture  revelations  concerning  the  unseen  world  and 
the  eternal  future.  Faith  believes  these  revelations,  and 
imagination,  aroused  by  faith  and  called  into  its  service, 
makes  the  things  unseen  and  eternal  a  reality  to  the  mind, 
so  that  they  affect  the  feelings  almost  like  objects  of  sense, 
and  become  a  power  in  our  earthly  life.  It  may  also  to  some 
extent  fill  out  the  Bible  pictures  of  the  unseen  world,  by 
following  the  analogies  of  this  world  ;  but  there  is  here 
demanded  a  moderation  and  reserve,  a  care  in  distinguish- 
ing between  the  revealed  and  the  supposed,  which  in  some 
books  and  many  sermons  are  sadly  wanting. 

§  2.      MEANS   OF   CULTIVATING   THE   IMAGINATION. 

If  this  faculty  nas  so  much  to  do  with  the  construction 
and  style,  and  even  with  inventing  the  materials  of  dis- 
course, it  becomes  a  matter  of  very  high  importance  that 
preachers  should  employ  the  best  means  of  giving  it 
thorough  cultivation,  and  bringing  it  under  complete 
control. 


RELATION    TO    ELOQUENCE.  401 

1.  Certain  moral  qualities  and  habits  greatly  promote 
the  noblest  uses  of  imagination.  We  have  seen  that  the 
highest  imagination  is  essentially  serious.  Habitual  frivol- 
ity, in  an  individual  or  a  people,  will  prevent  the  appre- 
ciation and  the  exercise  of  this  exalted  faculty.  "  I 
suppose  the  chief  bar  to  the  action  of  imagination,  and 
stop  to  all  greatness  in  this  present  age  of  ours,  is  its  mean 
and  shallow  love  of  jest  and  jeer,  so  that  if  there  be  in 
any  good  and  lofty  work  a  flaw  or  failing,  or  undipped 
vulnerable  part  where  sarcasm  may  stick  or  stay,  it  is  caught 
at,  and  pointed  at,  and  buzzed  about,  and  fixed  upon,  and 
stung  into,  as  a  recent  wound  is  by  flies,  and  nothing  is 
ever  taken  seriously  nor  as  it  was  meant,  but  always,  if  it 
may  be,  turned  the  wrong  way,  and  misunderstood ;  and 
while  this  is  so,  there  is  not,  nor  cannot  be  any  hope  of 
achievement  of  high  things  ;  men  dare  not  open  their  hearts 

to  us,  if  we  are  to  broil  them  on  a  thorn  fire "We  have 

seen  that  imagination  is  in  no  small  degree  dependent  on 
acuteness  of  moral  emotion  —  in  fact,  all  moral  truth  can 
only  thus  be  apprehended  ;  and  it  is  observable,  generally, 
that  all  true  emotion  is  imaginative,  both  in  conception  and 
expression ;  and  that  the  mental  sight  becomes  sharper  with 
every  full  beat  of  the  heart;  and  therefore  all  egotism,  and 
selfish  care,  or  regard,  are,  in  proportion  to  their  constancy, 
destructive  of  imagination  ;  whose  play  and  power  depend 
altogether  on  our  being  able  to  forget  ourselves  and  enter 
like  possessing  spirits  into  the  bodies  of  things  about  us." 

Besides,  as  "  the  life  of  imagination  is  in  the  discovering 
of  truth,"  it  will  be  independent,  superior  to  praise  or 
blame.  "  Sympathy  it  desires  —  but  can  do  without ;  of 
opinions  it  is  regardless,  not  in  pride,  but  because  it  has  no 
vanity,  and  is  conscious  of  a  rule  of  action  and  object  of 
aim  in  which  it  cannot  be  mistaken  ;  partly,  also,  in  pure 
energy  of  desire  and  longing  to  do  and  to  invent  more 
and  more,  which  suffer  it  not  to  suck  the  sweetness  of  praise 
34* 


402  IMAGINATION,   IN    ITS 

—  unless  a  little,  with  the  end  of  the  rod  in  its  hand,  and 
without  pausing  in  its  march." 

These  earnest  utterances  of  Ruskin  *  relate  originally 
to  painting ;  but  they  require  very  slight  modification  to 
apply  to  oratory,  and  especially  to  preaching,  where  pas- 
sionate love  of  truth  and  lofty  earnestness  of  soul  are  so 
eminently  appropriate. 

2.  Imagination  is  awakened  and  invigorated  by  commu- 
nion with  nature.  A  certain  indefinable  sympathy  exists, 
by  a  law  of  our  being,  between  external  nature  and  our- 
selves. Its  forms  and  hues  have  a  meaning  for  us  more 
subtle  than  language  conveys,  and  excite  in  us  strange 
longings  and  kindlings  of  soul,  till  we  idealize  all  we 
behold.  And  our  thoughtful  observation  of  nature  may 
be  quickened  and  exalted  by  science.  The  systematic 
study  of  minerals,  vegetables,  animals,  reveals  to  us  new 
and  wonderful  things,  teaches  us  to  read,  where  we  had  not 
seen  it  before,  the  handwriting  of  our  God.  Geology  ac- 
quaints us  with  earth's  mighty  past,  Astronomy  introduces 
us  to  the  ever  widening  and  brightening  glories  of  the 
wonder-crowded  universe,  till  the  ''  music  of  the  spheres  " 
attains  for  us  a  sublime,  orchestral  grandeur,  an  unearthly 
sweetness,  a  wealth  of  precious  meaning,  which  the  wise 
Greek  never  knew.  We  need  not  now  to  people  all  natural 
objects  with  unseen,  half-human  creatures,  nor  need  we  lose 
ourselves  in  the  vagueness  of  pantheism ;  our  personality 
may  everywhere  indulge  its  longing  for  communion  with  a 
person,  we  may  find  in  all  nature  the  personal  God.  —  But 
words  are  here  vain.  If  we  wish  for  power  of  imagination, 
let  us  observe,  contemplate,  commune  with  nature. 

3.  Art  and  Literature  may  greatly  aid  us.  Nature  Is  by 
mDst  of  us  very  imperfectly  understood  and  appreciated 
till  interpreted  to  us  by  the  poet  or  the  artist.  Perhaps 
we  grew  up  amid  glorious  mountains,  or  beside  the  many- 

*  Modern  Painters,  Vol.  II,  p.  166,  186. 


RELATION    TO    ELOQUENCE.  403 

sounding  sea,  and  yet  little  knew  their  meaning,  little  felt 
their  inspiration,  till  some  high-priest  of  nature  had  taught 
us,  by  the  pen  or  the  pencil,  how  to  behold  and  comprehend 
and  sympathize. 

Sculpture,  painting,  architecture,  have  a  strange  power 
to  develop  the  imagination  in  general,  and  sometimes  to 
stimulate  it  for  particular  efibrts,  and  they  can  be  devoid  of 
interest  to  none  who  possess  this  faculty  in  even  a  moderate 
degree.  When  Andrew  Fuller  stopped  suddenly  amid  the 
architectural  glories  of  Cambridge,  and  proposed  to  his 
guide  to  go  home  and  discuss  with  him  the  doctrine  of 
justiii cation,  he  betrayed  that  deficiency  of  imagination 
which  is  conspicuous  in  the  structure  and  the  style  of  his 
otherwise  admirable  sermons.  There  is  many  a  preacher 
who  could  tell  how  some  picture,  perhaps  casually  looked 
at,  has  helped  him  in  making  a  sermon  ;  there  is  many  a 
one  utterly  unable  to  tell  how  much  the  general  study  of 
works  of  art  has  contributed  to  develop  his  imagination.* 

In  our  country  few  have  any  considerable  opportunity 
for  beholding  the  most  inspiring  works  of  art.f  But  the 
poets  are  accessible  to  all,  and  they  are  here  our  chief 
teachers.  They  see  the  analogies  of  external  nature  to  moral 
and  religious  truth  as  most  of  us  cannot;  and  they  open  up 
to  us  unknown  depths  in  our  own  nature.  From  them  we 
may  le^rn  how  to  observe  and  compare,  how  to  depict  and 
interpret ;  though  we  must  not  forget  that  they  aim  mainly 
to  please,  while  we  must  subordinate  everything  to  spiritual 
profit,  and  that  such  diflference  of  aim  should  lead  to  great 
diflference  of  method.  And  it  is  not  of  necessity  those  poets 
who  seem  to  the  general  reader  to  show  most  imagination, 
but  those  who  most  kindle  our  imagination,  that  will  in 

*See  some  good  thoughts  in  McCosh's  Lecture,  p.  39  ff. 

•}•  Many  suggestive  ideas  of  art  may  be  derived  from  Ruskin  s 
various  works,  and  much  useful  information  on  the  subject  from 
Samson's  Elements  of  Art-Criticism  (Philadelphia,  Lippiucott). 


404  IMAGINATION,    IN    ITS 

this  respect  be  most  useful.  Thus  "Wordsworth  and  the 
Brownings  are  much  more  profitable  than  Tom  Moore  and 
the  poems  of  Scott.  AVe  must  seek  by  effort  of  our  own 
imagination  to  conceive  the  poet's  image,  if  we  are  to  have 
not  mere  entertainment  but  improvement ;  and  he  is  for  us 
the  best  poet  who  awakens  our  imagination,  gives  it  general 
direction,  stimulates  it  by  some  of  the  most  suggestive  details, 
and  leaves  it  to  do  all  the  rest  for  itself.  That  is  to  say,  in 
order  to  the  benefit  here  proposed,  we  must  study  poetry. 

There  is  much  highly  imaginative  prose  which  has  a 
similar  value.  Novel-reading,  while  well  known  to  injure 
many,  would  if  properly  managed  be  to  some  preachers 
exceedingly  profitable,  in  respect  to  imagination  and  literary 
taste.  As  a  rule,  one  should  read  only  the  very  best  works 
of  the  very  best  novelists  ;  and  he  should  never  read  two 
novels  in  succession,  but  always  put  between  them  several 
works  of  a  very  different  kind.  And  there  is  often  more  to 
be  learned  from  a  novel,  if  at  an  early  period  we  turn  over 
and  find  out  how  the  story  will  end,  or  if  we  deliberately 
examine  one  previously  read.  Goethe,  Edgar  Poe,  and 
many  others,  have  given  us  imaginative  writings  not  pro- 
perly called  tales,  which  may  in  like  manner  be  profitable. 
Some  of  the  historians  powerfully  appeal  to  and  exercise 
the  imagination  of  their  readers ;  for  example,  Macaulay 
and  Motley.  And  the  great  orators  and  preachers  present 
to  us  imagination  operating  in  precisely  those  methods  with 
which  we  are  most  concerned.  If  one  wishes  to  stimulate 
in  himself  the  desire  for  affluence  of  imaginative  diction, 
let  him  read  Plato,  Cicero,  Chrysostom,  Jeremy  Taylor, 
Milton,  Burke,  Chalmers ;  if  he  wishes  to  chasten  himself 
into  a  more  sober  and  regulated  use  of  imagination,  so  that 
it  shall  be  duly  subordinated  to  other  faculties,  let  him  read 
Demosthenes,  Tacitus,  Daniel  Webster,  Robert  Hall.  In 
general  it  must  be  remembered  that  here,  as  elsewhere, 
appetite  is  not  always  a  sure  guide. 


RELATION    TO    ELOQUENCE.  405 

4.  After  all,  the  great  means  of  cultivating  imagination, 
as  is  the  ease  with  all  our  faculties,  is  actual  exercise.  The 
excessive  display  of  second-rate  imagination  which  some 
men  make  so  offensive,  drives  other  men  to  the  opposite 
extreme,  so  that  they  shrink  from  illustration  and  imagery 
where  they  are  really  needful,  and  never  stop  to  consider 
how  numerous  and  varied  and  surpassingly  important  are 
the  functions  of  this  much-abused  faculty.  Let  a  man 
freely  exercise  imagination,  in  constructing  and  inventing, 
in  picturing  and  illustrating,  in  reproducing  the  past  and 
giving  vivid  reality  to  the  unseen  world  ;  but  let  him  every- 
where exercise  it  under  the  control  of  sound  judgment  and 
good  taste,  and  above  all  of  devout  feeling  and  a  solemn 
sense  of  responsibility  to  God. 


Fart  IV. 
DELIVERY  OF  SERMONS, 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  THREE   METHODS  OF    PREPARATION  AND 
DELIVERY.* 

§  1.  Reading.  §  2,  Recitation.  §  3.  Extemporaneous  Speakinq. 
§  4.  History  of  the  Three  Methods.  §  5.  General  and  Spe- 
cial Preparation  for  Extemporizing. 

RE ADING,  reciting,  extemporaneous  speaking, — which 
is  the  best  method  of  preaching  ?  Though  so  often 
discussed,  this  question  constantly  recurs,  not  merely  for 
the  young  preachers  whom  every  year  brings  forward,  but 
for  many  of  maturer  age,  who  are  not  satisfied  that  they 
have  been  pursuing  the  wisest  course.  It  is  a  question 
affecting  not  only  one's  manner  of  delivery,  but  his  whole 
method  of  preparation,  and  in  fact  all  his  habits  of  thought 
and  expression.  While  not  so  indispensable  a  condition 
of  usefulness  as  that  a  man  shall  hold  the  truth,  or  that  he 
shall  love  his  work,  or  that  he  shall  be  a  born  speaker,  it 
is  surely  a  matter  of  very  great  importance  to  one  whose 

*  Among  the  numerous  discussions  of  this  subject,  attention  is 

directed  to  those  of  Ware  (in  Ripley),  Fenelon,  Palmer,  Coquerel, 

Kidder,  Skinner,  and  Hoppin.     See  above,  Introduction,  ^  7,  on 

the  Literature  of  Uomiletios. 

406 


THE    THREE    METHODS,   ETC.  407 

best  energies  through  life  are  devoted  to  preaching,  that 
he  should  study  and  speak  in  the  most  effective  way. 

We  can  only  inquire  which  method  is  generally  best. 
No  one  of  the  three  can  be  properly  set  forth  as  exclusive. 
For  a  process  so  complex  as  that  of  preparing  and  deliver- 
ing a  sermon,  a  process  embracing  such  a  multitude  of 
diverse  and  variable  elements,  it  ought  to  be  manifest 
baforehand  that  only  general  rules  can  be  determined. 
And  in  such  an  inquiry  particular  cases  will  commonly 
prove  nothing.  Some  men  have  spoken  with  great  power 
who  could  not  write  a  word.  Even  now,  when  the  art  of 
writing  is  so  generally  diffused,  we  may  hear  preachers, 
both  white  and  colored,  who  are,  in  some  important  respects, 
highly  effective,  while  quite  unequal  to  the  merely  mechan- 
ical task  of  writing  a  discourse.  Among  those  who  handle 
the  pen  with  ease,  there  are  men,  self-educated,  who  have 
become  popular  and  really  powerful  preachers,  who  find 
written  composition  very  difficult,  because  they  have  never 
practised  it,  nor  in  any  wise  trained  themselves  to  it.  Spur- 
geon  speaks  very  strongly,  in  the  preface  to  his  first  book, 
of  the  drudgery  and  difficulty  of  composition,  as  compared 
with  the  ease  and  rapture  of  free  speech.  The  one  had 
become  familiar  to  him,  the  other  was  new  and  irksome. 
What  wonder,  if  on  the  other  hand,  we  find  many  whose 
whole  training  and  practice  has  been  in  writing,  and  for 
whom  it  is  difficult  and  apparently  impossible  to  speak 
what  has  not  been  written.  Moreover,  men  of  high  talent 
can  speak  effectively  in  any  way.  Luther  laid  on  his 
back,  bound  hand  and  foot,  would  have  preached  impress- 
ively. The  rude  drayman  refuses  to  believe  that  it  lessens 
a  horse's  power  of  draught  to  rein  him  tightly,  because 
he  has  a  very  strong  horse  which  can  pull  immense  loads 
when  reined.  We  call  him  foolish,  and  in  regard  to  other 
questions  reason  in  the  same  fashion.  Each  of  the  methods 
of  preach'ng  has  been  and  is  now  employed  by  some  men 


408  THE    THREE    METHODS    OP 

with  admirable  effect.  Something  in  the  subject  or  the 
circumstances  may  at  times  render  it  advisable  to  adopt 
a  different  method  from  that  generally  employed.  Some 
ministers  may  be  compelled  to  pursue  one  or  another  by 
their  very  peculiar  constitution,  or  by  the  confirmed  habits 
of  a  long  life.     But  which  is  generally  best  ? 

Great  extravagance  is  frequently  to  be  observed  in  the 
discussion  of  this  question,  on  all  sides.  For  example, 
some  will  say  that  reading  a  sermon  is  not  preaching  at 
all.  Those  who  argue  against  extemporaneous  preach- 
ing very  often  speak  as  if  it  meant  preaching  without  any 
preparation.  Of  course  the  proper  thing  to  be  done  is 
calmly  to  consider  the  advantages  and  disadvantages,  so  far 
as  they  can  be  exhibited,  of  each  method,  and  thus  decide 
which  is  to  be  preferred. 

§  1.      READING. 

1.  To  write  sermons  and  read  them,  is  a  method  which 
has  obviously  some  important  advantages.  These  exist 
both  with  reference  to  preparation,  to  delivery,  and  to  the 
preacher's  usefulness  in  other  respects. 

(1.)  Writing  greatly  assists  the  work  of  preparation, 
by  rendering  it  easier  to  fix  the  mind  upon  the  subject. 
Mental  application  is  facilitated  by  any  appropriate  bodily 
action,  and  men  who  do  not  write  often  find  it  necessary  to 
walk  the  floor,  or,  as  was  the  habit  of  Schleiermacher,  to 
lean  out  of  a  window  for  hours,  or  in  general  to  assume 
some  c(ynstrained  posture  or  perform  some  regularly  recur- 
ring act.  Now  writing  involves  a  high  degree  of  that  con- 
trol of  body  which  so  contributes  to  control  of  the  mind, 
and  has  at  the  same  time  the  advantage  of  possessing  a 
closer  natural  relation  to  thought  than  any  other  act  ex« 
cept  speaking  itself.  Indeed  every  one  knows  how  greatly 
writing  tends  to  keep  the  thoughts  from  wandering. 

(2.)   Beside^    writing    a    sermon    compels    to    greater 


PREPARATION    AND    DELIVERY.  409 

completeness  of  preparation.  He  who  prepares  witLjut 
writino-,  may,  and  as  a  rule  ought  to,  follow  out  all  the 
developments  and  expansions  of  his  thoughts  as  far  as 
the  discourse  is  to  carry  them ;  but  he  who  writes  must  do 
this,  is  compelled  to  it. 

(3.)  Still  further,  writing  serves  to  secure,  in  several 
respects,  greater  excellence  of  style.  As  a  general  thing, 
unwritten  speech  cannot  equal  that  which  is  written,  in 
grammatical  correctness,  in  precision,  conciseness,  smooth- 
ness, and  rhetorical  finish.  These  are  highly  important 
properties  of  style,  and  particularly  with  respect  to  the 
demands  of  some  audiences,  occasions,  or  subjects.  Thus, 
if  one  is  discussing  a  controverted  point  of  doctrine,  in  the 
presence  of  persons  ready  to  misunderstand  or  misrepresent 
him,  it  is  even  more  than  usually  desirable  that  his  lan- 
guage should  be  precise  and  unmistakable.  Some  hearers 
are  very  fastidious  as  to  the  preacher's  finish  of  style.  His 
language,  as  well  as  his  manner  of  delivery  and  his  dress, 
must  be  comme  ilfaut,  or  they  will  have  nothing  to  do  with 
him.  Such  fastidiousness  may  not  deserve  any  high  re- 
spect, but  of  course  it  should  not  be  needlessly  disregarded. 
And  sermons  on  an  occasion  of  academic  or  other  specially 
literary  interest,  are  commonly  and  naturally  expected  to 
possess  an  unusual  degree  of  flowing  smoothness  and  elegant 
finish.  The  preacher  himself,  too,  especially  the  young 
preacher  of  fine  literary  cultivation,  is  apt  to  be  sensitive 
as  to  the  minute  faults  of  style ;  and  writing  enables  him 
better  to  meet  the  d-emands  of  his  own  taste. 

(4.)  As  regards  the  delivery  of  the  sermon,  this  method 
has  the  advantage  of  placing  the  preacher  more  at  his 
ease,  both  before  and  during  the  delivery.  Having  the 
sermon  written,  he  will  be  preserved,  and  knows  that  he 
will  be,  from  any  utter  and  mortifying  failure.  It  is  a 
great  relief  to  escape  the  tremulous  and  often  distressing 
anxiety  which  one  is  apt  otherwise  to  feel.  The  preacher 
35 


410  THE    THRE  E    METHODS    OF 

who  means  to  read,  has  a  f  Ar  better  chance  to  slee^j  soundly 
on  Saturday  night.  It  is  also  an  advantage  to  be  collected 
and  confident  while  delivering  the  sermon,  rather  than 
oppressed  by  nervous  solicitude,  or  driven  wild  by  uncon- 
tj-ollable  excitement.  Some  preachers  find  that  reading 
saves  them  from  an  excessive  volubility,  or  an  extreme 
vehemence  which  otherwise  they  find  it  hard  to  control ; 
and  very  many  fear  that  without  the  manuscript  they  would 
be  utterly  crushed  by  the  dread  of  breaking  down. 

Besides,  writing  sermons  tends  to  promote  the  preacher's 
usefulness  in  several  other  respects. 

(5.)  The  written  discourse  can  be  used  on  subsequent 
occasions  without  the  necessity  of  renewed  preparation, 
and  thus  frequently  saves  a  good  deal  of  time  and  labor. 

(6.)  The  sermons  remain  for  publication,  if  ever  that 
should  be  desirable.  Many  a  truly  great  preacher,  and 
widely  useful  in  his  day,  has  left  but  a  fading,  vanishing 
name,  while  some  contemporary  of  perhaps  no  greater 
ability,  but  who  wrote  his  discourses,  is  still  known  and  still 
useful.     For  example,  compare  Fenelon  with  Bourdaloue. 

(7.)  And  then  the  practice  gives  facility  in  writing, 
which  in  our  day  is  a  highly  important  means  of  useful- 
ness. The  successful  preacher  has  now  many  opportuni- 
ties to  publish,  and  it  is  apt  to  become  a  sort  of  reproach 
to  him,  diminishing  his  influence,  if  he  is  not  sometimes 
heard  from  through  the  press. 

2.  To  write  and  read  has  thus  a  number  of  advantages, 
some  of  them  decidedly  important.  What,  now,  are  its 
disadvantages  ? 

(1.)  If  writing  aids  in  thinking,  it  is  apt  to  render  one 
largely  dependent  on  such  assistance.  Especially  objection- 
able is  the  fact  that  this  practice  accustoms  the  preacher 
to  think  connectedly  only  as  fast  as  he  can  write,  when  it 
is  more  natural  and  m  re  convenient  that  a  man  should 
think  as  fast  as  he  can  talk. 


PREPARATION    AND    DELIVERY.  411 

(2.)  And  if  writing  compels  th(  preacher  to  go  over  the 
ground  more  completely,  it  is  not  always  done  more  thor- 
oughly. The  thinking  is  more  extensive,  but  may  be  less 
intensive.  Being  obliged  to  run  over  the  surface  every- 
where, the  preacher  may  go  beneath  it  nowhere.  If  many 
sermons  are  spoken  with  very  superficial  preparation,  so 
with  very  superficial  preparation  are  many  sermons  written. 
There  is  an  immense  amount  of  strictly  extemporaneous 
writing.  People  are  apt  to  think  that  what  is  written  and 
read  must  have  been  carefully  prepared,  but  they  are  often 
egregiously  mistaken.  A  highly  popular  preacher  once 
said,  —  of  course  half  as  a  jest,  —  that  he  was  so  frequently 
compelled  to  get  up  his  sermons  hastily,  as  to  make  it  indis- 
pensable that  he  should  write,  in  order  to  give  them  at  least 
the  appearance  of  careful  preparation. 

(3.)  Akin  to  this  last  is  the  disadvantage  of  consuming  so 
much  time  in  the  merely  mechanical  effort  of  writing,  — 
time  which  might  often  be  more  profitably  spent  upon  the 
thoughts  of  the  discourse,  or  upon  the  preacher's  general- 
improvement.  True,  the  extemporaneous  speaker,  in  hlu 
earlier  efforts,  needs  to  spend  no  less  time,  but  rather  more 
in  preparation ;  but  if  laborious  at  the  outset,  his  power  of 
working  out  the  details  will  rapidly  increase,  and  the  time 
necessary  for  this  become  much  less,  while  the  writer  must 
as  long  as  he  lives  spend  a  number  of  hours  in  the  task  of 
writing.  Now  the  pastors  of  large  churches  in  tliis  country 
are  often,  indeed  commonly,  expected  to  do  the  work  of 
several  different  men.  Their  whole  time  might  be  usefully 
spent  in  pastoral  visiting,  and  some  folks  would  complain 
of  them  after  all.  Their  work  on  committees  and  boards, 
in  attending  public  meetings,  and  helping  to  push  forward 
all  manner  of  benevolent  enterprises,  together  with  the 
exercise  of  hospitality  to  visiting  Irethren,  makes  heavy 
drafts  upon  their  time.  The  wide  and  varied  knowledge 
which  many  churches  expect  their  :mstors  to  exhibit,  the 


412  THE    THREE    METHODS     OF 

supply  of  fresh  material  for  argument,  illust;  atio  a,  and 
application,  so  as  to  meet  the  constant  demands  of  their 
position  without  becoming  exhausted  and  commonplace, 
can  be  obtained  only  by  giving  much  time  to  reading  and 
reflection.  And  now,  with  all  this  upon  them,  here  are 
two,  frequently  three  sermons  a  week  to  provide,  when  if 
elaborate  discourses  are  wanted,  it  would  be  much  more 
reasonable  to  give  two  weeks  to  one  sermon,  than  to  expect 
two  sermons  in  one  week.  How  in  the  world  preachers 
get  through  all  this,  is  a  mystery  even  to  most  of  those 
who  accomplish  it.  Generally,  indeed,  they  do  not  get 
through  it  all.  They  do  those  things  which  their  circum- 
stances, opinions,  or  habits  lead  them  to  think  most  impor- 
tant or  most  pressing,  and  the  remaining  departments  of 
the  expected  work  are,  except  in  the  case  of  very  remarka- 
ble men,  inevitably  more  or  less  neglected.  Among  all  the 
causes  of  those  frequent  ministerial  changes  which  are  so 
generally  observed  and  deplored,  perhaps  none  are  so 
potent  as  the  fact  that  pastors  are  expected  to  do  more 
than  they  find  practicable.  Harassed,  disappointed  after 
many  new  schemes  and  efforts,  and  finally  despairing,  be- 
cause he  cannot  study  and  improve  himself,  or  cannot  com- 
pass the  needful  pastoral  work,  or  cannot  avoid  serious 
damage  to  his  health,  the  preacher  receives  a  call  to  a  new 
field,  and  hoping  that  by  a  judicious  use  of  former  prepa- 
rations, h^nay  there  find  time  for  the  duties  he  has  seemed  to 
himself  to  be  so  sadly  neglecting,  he  goes.  These  changes 
often  show  faults  of  many  kinds  to  exist  in  various  quar- 
ters. But  most  of  all  they  show  that  our  pastors  are  over- 
burdened. In  such  a  state  of  things  it  becomes  a  very 
serious  matter  that  a  preacher  should  condemn  himself,  for 
life,  to  spend  every  week  six,  eight,  twelve  hours  in  merely 
writing  out  each  of  two  sermons,  and  that  when  by  far  the 
most  important  and  difficult  portion  of  his  preparation,  :he 
Belection  of  text  and  subject,  interpretation,  invention  of 


PREPARATION    AND    DELIVERY.  413 

materials,  and  arrangement  of  the  discourse,  ought  fo  have 
been  completed  before  he  begins  to  write. 

(4.)  Again,  this  method  compels  the  preacher  to  follow 
out  that  plan  of  the  discourse  which  he  originally  adopted, 
though  in  the  course  of  preparation  it  may  become  evident 
that  another  plan  would  be  much  better.  This  must  be 
a  very  frequent  experience,  especially  when  the  writing 
begins  before  the  plan  has  been  very  well  matured.  Who 
has  not  found,  when  more  than  half  through  his  prepara- 
tion, that  thirdly  ought  to  be  firstly,  or  even  that  there  had 
better  be  a  different  mode  of  stating  the  subject,  with  a 
corresponding  modification  of  the  whole  treatment  ?  How 
often  will  tired  and  hurried  human  nature  endure  to  throw 
away  all  that  has  been  written,  and  begin  anew?  More- 
over, if  haste  or  negligence  in  the  preparation  has  produced 
faults  of  detail,  most  readers  find  it  very  difficult  to  correct' 
these  in  the  course  of  delivery,  however  clearly  they  may 
then  be  perceived. 

(5.)  This  method  also  deprives  the  preacher's  thinking 
of  the  benefit  of  all  that  mental  quickening  which  is  pro- 
duced by  the  presence  of  the  congregation.  As  to  thoughts 
which  are  then  for  the  first  time  struck  out,  it  is  true  that 
men  of  rare  flexibility,  tact  and  grace  can  often  introduce 
them  effectively  in  connection  with  their  reading.  But 
such  men  establish  no  general  rule,  and  the  great  mass  of 
those  who  read  have  to  lose  such  thoughts  altogether,  or  to 
introduce  them  awkwardly  and  with  comparatively  poor 
effect.  And  besides  the  distinct  thoughts  which  occur  only 
in  the  act  of  delivery,  there  is  something  much  more 
important  in  the  warmer  color  Avhich  the  now  kindled  and 
glowing  mind  would  give  to  the  whole  body  of  thought,  in 
those  differences  of  hue  and  tone  which  change  the  mass 
of  prepared  material  into  living,  breathing,  burning  speech. 
Y  nder  stand  the  autumn  trees,  with  their  many  colors  all 
dull  and  tame  benei  th  the  ashen  sky ;  but  presently  the 
35* 


414  THE    THREE    METHODS    OF 

eveniDg  sun  bursts  through  the  clouds,  and  lights  up  the 
forest  with  an  almost  unearthly  glory.  Not  less  great  is 
the  difference  between  preparation  and  speech,  for  every 
one  who  was  born  to  be  a  speaker.  Now  whatever  of  this 
concerns  the  mere  mode  of  utterance,  the  reader  may  to 
some  extent  achieve.  But  all  that  belongs  to  the  trans- 
figured conception,  to  the  changed  color  and  heightened 
tone  of  expression,  which  m  free  speaking  would  show 
itself  with  ease  and  completeness,  all  this  he  can  but  par- 
tially feel,  and  is  powerless  to  manifest.  It  is  true,  as  we 
are  sometimes  told,  that  by  an  effort  of  imagination  when 
composing,  one  may  to  some  extent  bring  before  his  mind 
the  congregation,  and  feel  by  anticipation  the  quickening 
of  its  presence ;  but  there  are  few  respects  in  which  imagi- 
nation falls  so  far  below  the  actual  experience. 

(6.)  As  to  delivery  itself,  reading  is  of  necessity  less 
effective,  and  in  most  cases  immensely  less  effective,  for 
all  the  great  purposes  of  oratory,  than  speaking.  Greater 
coldness  of  manner  is  almost  inevitable.  If  one  attempts 
to  be  very  animated  or  pathetic,  it  will  look  unnatural. 
The  tones  of  voice  are  monotonous,  or  have  a  forced  variety. 
The  gestures  are  nearly  always  unnatural,  because  it  is  not 
natural  to  gesticulate  much  in  reading ;  and  they  scarcely 
ever  raise  us  higher  than  to  feel  that  really  this  man  reads 
almost  like  speaking.  The  mere  turning  of  the  pages, 
however  skilfully  done,  breaks  the  continuity  of  delivery. 
In  the  midst,  perhaps,  of  some  impassioned  passage,  while 
the  preacher's  face  glows,  his  action  bas  become  varied  and 
passionate,  and  he  has  wrought  us  up  to  a  high  degree  of 
sympathy  with  him,  presently  his  right  hand  descends  and 
flings  over  a  leaf,  and  the  spell  is  broken  ;  we  are  made  to 
remember  what  we  are  doing,  are  reminded  that,  after  all, 
this  is  not  living  speech,  but  only  splendid  reading,  —  that 
we  are  not,  as  a  moment  ago  we  seemed  to  feel,  in  immediate 
and  fully  sympathizing  contact  with  the  burning  soul  of 


PREPARATION    AND    DELIVERY.  415 

the  speaker,  but  "  that  paper  there  "  is  between  us.  Con- 
sider,  too,  that  the  most  potent  element  in  the  delivery  of  a 
real  orator  is  often  the  expressiveness  of  the  eye.  No  man 
can  describe  this ;  he  cannot  fully  recall  it  afterwards,  and 
at  the  moment  he  is  too  completely  under  its^  influence  to 
think  of  analyzing  and  explaining  it.  But  every  man  has 
felt  it, — the  marvellous,  magical,  at  times  almost  super- 
human power  of  an  orator's  eye.  That  look,  how  it  pierces 
our  inmost  soul,  now  kindling  us  to  passion,  now  melting 
us  into  tenderness.  And  all  the  better  that  it  is  not  felt 
as  a  thing  apart  from  speech,  but  blends  with  it  more 
thoroughly  than  gesture  can,  more  completely  than  music 
blends  with  poetry,  and  reinforces,  with  all  its  mysterious 
potency,  the  power  of  thought  and  sentiment  and  sound. 
Now  in  reading,  this  wonderful  expressiveness  of  the  eye  is 
interrupted,  grievously  diminished  in  power,  reduced  to  be 
nothing  better  than  occasional  sunbeams,  breaking  out  for 
a  moment  among  wintry  clouds. 

In  a  word,  reading  is  an  essentially  different  thing  from 
speaking.  When  well  executed,  reading  has  a  power  of  its 
own,  but  it  is  unnatural  to  substitute  it  for  speaking,  and 
it  can  at  best  only  approximate,  never  fully  attain,  the 
same  effect. 

(7.)  It  should  be  added,  that  reading  is  more  injurious 
to  the  voice.  Any  one  who  is  so  unfortunate  as  to  have 
become  subject  to  laryngitis,  will  soon  find  that  he  can 
speak  with  much  less  fatigue  than  he  can  read.  This  shows 
a  natural  difference,  though  persons  whose  vocal  organs  are 
not  diseased  may  not  notice  it.  There  are  several  causes 
which  combine  to  produce  the  "minister's  sore -throat," 
which  is  so  common.*  The  practice  of  reading  sermons  is 
by  no  means  the  principal  one,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  it  has  some  effect. 

(8.)  That  the  habit  of  reading  should  make  one  afraid 
*See  below,  chap.  2. 


41()  THE    THREE    METHODS    OF 

to  attempt  speaking  without  a  manuscript,  is  not  a  neces- 
sary consequence.  Every  enlightened  defender  of  reading 
would  urge  that  the  preacher  ought  to  practice  himself  in 
unwritten  speech  also,  and  thus  be  able  to  speak  when  sud- 
denly called  on ;  and  certainly  there  are  men  who  habit- 
ually read,  and  yet  upon  occasion  can  extemporize  very 
effectively.  Yet  the  manifest  tendency,  and  the  common 
result  of  habitual  reading,  is  to  make  one  dependent  and 
timid  ;  and  such  preachers  often  miss  opportunities  of  doing 
good,  and  are  sometimes  made  ridiculous  by  their  inability 
to  preach  from  not  having  "  brought  along  any  sermons." 
Such  a  slavish  and  helpless  dependence  upon  manuscript  is 
almost  universally  felt  to  be  painful,  if  not  pitiful.  For 
this  and  other  reasons,  uniform  reading  is  very  seldom  ad- 
vocated, though  still  often  practiced  in  some  quarters. 

3.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  reading  sermons 
having  been  considered,  a  few  suggestions  may  now  be 
offered  to  those  who  adopt  this  method. 

If  you  read,  do  not  try  to  disguise  the  fact.  Coquerel 
remarks  that  all  the  artifices  practiced  for  this  purpose, 
"have  bad  grace  and  little  success.  If  one  reads  in  the 
pulpit,  it  is  better  to  read  openly  and  boldly,  taking  no 
other  pains  than  to  have  a  manuscript  easily  legible  and 
properly  smoothed  down  on  the  front  of  the  pulpit ;  then, 
to  turn  the  leaves  without  affecting  a  disguise,  which  is  use- 
less and  unbecoming.  We  may  be  certain  that  the  hearers 
are  not  deceived  in  this  respect;  they  always  know  when 
an  orator  is  reading."  * 

But  more.  Do  not  attempt  to  convert  the  reading  into 
speaking.  •  The  two  are,  as  already  said,  essentially  dif- 
ferent. Is  it  possible  for  a  man  to  speak  as  if  he  were 
reading?  Let  it  be  tried,  and  he  who  comes  nearest  to 
success  will  most  effectually  spoil  his  speaking.  But  on 
the  other  hand,  is  it  really  possible  to  read  as  if  you  were 
*  Coquerel,  p.  177. 


PREPARATION    AND    DELIVERY.  417 

speaking?  Schoolirwsters  often  tell  their  boys,  "Read  it 
j  ist  as  if  YOU  were  talking ; "  and  the  effort  to  do  this  may 
help  to  cure  the  school-boy  sing-song,  by  making  the  read- 
ing more  like  talking.  But  in  fact,  no  one  can  read  pre- 
cisely as  he  talks,  and  no  one  ought  to.  As  regards  private 
reading  and  private  conversation,  probably  no  considerate 
person  will  deny  this  essential  difference.  Is  it  not  similarly 
and  equally  true  as  regards  public  reading  and  public 
speaking?  Reading  before  a  large  audience  will,  of  course, 
differ  from  quiet  reading  to  a  few  persons;  and  where  the 
matter  read  is  preceptive  or  hortatory,  something  which  we 
personally  desire  to  impress  upon  the  hearers,  this  also  will 
give  a  peculiar  character  to  the  reading.  But  still  it  is 
reading.  The  attempt  to  convert  it  into  speaking  is  against 
nature,  must  fail,  and  ought  to  fail.  "  It  seems  to  us  that 
when  a  preacher,  for  whatever  reason,  reads  his  sermon, 
then  instead  of  wishing  to  produce  the  appearance  of  free 
speaking,  which  is  always  in  some  measure  an  attempt  at 
deception,  he  should  make  it  his  aim  to  read  well;  some- 
what as  when  one  with  warmth  and  interest  reads  to  his 
family  a  printed  discourse."  To  this  view  of  the  German 
writer,  Palmer,  we  should  say,  Yes,  somewhat;  but  with 
the  difference  naturally  produced  by  the  fact  that  you  are 
reading  to  a  large  assembly,  and  reading  what  intensely 
interests  yourself     Palmer  proceeds : 

"  To  hear  a  good  thing  well  read,  is  always  a  pleasure. 
But  instead  of  this,  one  man  gives  himself  no  trouble  with 
his  reading,  but  drawls  out  the  contents  of  his  manu- 
j^cript  with  monotonous  indifference  and  tediousness.  This 
is  revolting.  But  another  falls  into  the  opposite  extreme. 
Feeling  that  reading  is  a  fault,  he  wishes  to  make  amends 
by  declaiming  his  sermon  with  a  powerful  pathos.  This 
makes  a  contrary  impression,  for  the  more  exaggerated  the 
declamation  and  action  in  the  case,  the  more  glaring  the 
co:itrast  produced  bv  the  extremely  prosaic  act  of  looking 


418  THE    THREE    METHODS    OF 

into  the  manuscript.  He  who  is  so  terribly  in  earnest  with 
what  he  is  saying,  ought  also,  people  think,  to  know  what 
he  wants  to  say  ;  his  zeal  ought,  as  is  everywhere  else  the 
case,  to  put  words  into  his  mouth.  A  modest,  quiet,  but 
expressive  reading,  would  he  more  appropriate."* 

We  add  again,  that  the  reading  may  sometimes  become 
very  earnest,  even  if  not  impassioned,  but  it  must  still  be 
reading.  Let  not  the  reader  try  to  assume  postures,  ges- 
tures, or  looks,  such  as  he  thinks  would  be  appropriate  to 
one  speaking  these  words.  To  do  so  is  not  natural,  it  is 
to  be  an  actor ;  and  acting,  however  skilful  and  however 
much  admired,  is  in  the  pulpit  a  crime,  —  and,  as  the  diplo- 
matists say,  not  only  a  crime,  but  worse,  a  blunder.  Nay, 
let  the  reader  know  that  he  is  reading ;  let  him  mean  to 
read,  and  mean  to  have  everybody  understand  that  he  is 
reading ;  and  then  let  him  try  to  read  well,  so  as  to  impress 
the  truth  upon  his  hearers,  and  do  them  good.  The  observ- 
ance of  this  distinction  may  also  solve  the  much  discussed 
question,  whether  it  is  well  for  one  who  reads  to  interpolate 
unwritten  passages.  If  he  attempts  to  do  this  without  hav- 
ing the  difference  observed,  it  will  fail.  Alexander  says  : 
"  The  whole  train  of  operations  is  different  in  reading  or 
reciting  a  discourse  and  in  pronouncing  it  extempore.  If 
I  may  borrow  a  figure  from  engines,  the  mind  is  geared 
differently.  No  man  goes  from  one  track  to  the  other  with- 
out a  painful  jog  at  the  'switch.'  And  this  is,  I  suppose, 
the  reason  why  Dr.  Chalmers  ....  cautions  his  students 
against  every  attempt  to  mingle  reading  with  free  speak- 
ing. ...  It  requires  the  practice  of  years  to  dovetail  an 
extemporaneous  paragraph  gracefully  into  a  written  ser- 
mon." t  This  is  true  where  one  washes  the  two  to  sound 
alike.  But  if  his  reading  does  not  profess  nor  attempt  to 
be  speaking,  but  simply  reading,  then  he  may,  wherever 

*Palraer,  Horn.  p.  526-7. 

f  Thoughts  on  Preaching,  p.  142. 


PREPARATION    AND    DELIVERY.  4l9 

there  is  occasion,  introduce  something  unwritten,  either  in 
the  familiar  tone  appropriate  to  some  additional  illustra- 
tion or  remark,  or  even  in  the  outburst  of  some  impassioned 
appeal.  It  will  be  distinct  from  the  reading,  but  this  may 
give  variety  ;  and  the  reading  need  not  seem  flat  when  he 
returns  to  it,  because  it  did  not  profess  to  be  speaking. 
This  is  in  fact  the  practice  of  many  skilful  readers  of  ser- 
mons, though  it  may  not  be  their  theory  ;  nature  often 
triumphs  over  wrong  theory,  and  leads  men  to  read  simply 
as  earnest  reading,  and  then  to  diverge,  when  they  see  pro- 
per, into  speaking  as  a  distinct  thing.  If  those  who  read 
sermons  would  settle  it  well  in  their  minds  that  reading  is 
not  speaking,  and  cannot  be  converted  into  it,  and  would 
give  nature  free  play  in  their  reading,  the  advantages  of 
this  method  would  remain  intact,  and  its  disadvantages 
would  be  considerably  diminished.  Whether,  even  then, 
reading  can  be  made  as  impressive,  in  general,  as  well- 
prepared  speaking,  is  another  question.  The  remark  may 
be  added,  that  where  defective  vision,  or  bad  light,  or  a  low 
pulpit  makes  the  reading  difficult,  it  would  be  better  just 
quietly  to  hold  up  the  manuscript,  so  that  it  can  be  seen. 
If  the  pages  are  separate,  and  not  too  large,  this  can  be 
done  without  awkwardness  ;  and  if  the  people  see  that  the 
preacher  does  not  pretend  to  be  speaking,  but  reads  with  a 
straightforward  simplicity,  they  w^ill  rather  like  his  open- 
ness, and  at  any  rate  will  in  a  few  minutes  grow  used  to 
what  at  first  looked  odd. 

If  any  one  objects  to  all  this,  and  insists  that  it  is  neces- 
sary, whether  from  the  nature  of  the  case  or  from  the 
notions  and  feelings  of  the  people,  to  keep  the  manuscript 
out  of  sight,  and  make  the  reading  look  as  much  as  possible 
like  speaking,  then  he  is  in  fact  saying  what  has  not  been 
said  in  this  discussion,  that  a  preacher  ought  never  to  read 
sermons  at  all. 


420  THE    THREE    METHODS     OF 

§  2.      RECITATION,  —  TO   WRITE   AND   REPEAT    FROM 
MEMORY. 

1.  This  has  all  the  advantages  of  the  first  method,  as 
regards  more  complete  and  finished  preparation,  practice 
in  writing,  and  possession  of  the  sermon  for  subsequent  use 
and  for  publication.  There  is  here,  however,  no  preserva- 
tion from  utter  failure,  and  from  the  dread  of  failure, 
but  quite  the  contrary.  It  has  two  advantages  which  the 
former  method  does  not  possess.  To  recite  one's  own  com- 
position is  really  one  kind  of  speaking,  —  and  we  have 
seen  that  reading  is  not.  To  recite  is  speaking  under  difii- 
culties  and  disadvantages,  but  it  is  speaking.  It  is  not 
against  nature  to  treat  it  as  such,  nor  impossible  to  make 
it  approximate  somewhat  closely  to  the  excellence  and 
power  of  well-prepared  free  speech.  The  other  advantage 
is,  that  recitation  cultivates  the  memory.  Any  real  im- 
provement of  the  memory  is  certainly  a  matter  of  great 
value ;  men  who  habitually  recite  must  always  gain  benefit 
in  this  respect,  and  with  some,  the  results  are  remarkable. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  w-hile  recitation  is 
in  this  superior  to  reading,  it  is  not  superior  to  extempora- 
neous speaking;  for  the  power  of  verbal  memorizing  is 
really  less  valuable  than  the  ability  to  retain  ideas  with 
only  such  of  the  words  as  are  essential  to  their  precise 
expression. 

2.  As  to  disadvantages,  recitation  labors  under  many  of 
those  which  attend  upon  reading.  There  is  here  still  less 
opportunity  for  correcting  errors  observed  at  the  moment 
of  delivery,  for  interpolating  thoughts  which  then  for  the 
first  time  occur,  or  for  giving  new  shape  and  color  to  the 
thoughts,  and  new  force  to  the  expressions,  under  the  ex- 
citement of  actual  speaking.  The  mind  is  apt  to  be  all  in 
shackles,  having  little  use  for  any  of  its  faculties  except 
memory.    In  the  exercise  of  this,  there  is  often  a  confusion 


PREPARATION    AND    DELIVERY.  421 

of  local  with  what  might  be  called  logical  memory;  the 
recollection  of  Avhat  comes  next  on  the  page,  and  that  of 
the  connection  of  thought,  though  sometimes  aiding  each 
other,  will  at  other  times  become  confused  and  distracting. 
There  is  also  with  this  method  a  still  greater  consumption 
of  time  in  preparation.  He  who  adopts  it  has  not  only  to 
prepare  the  materials  and  form  the  plan  of  the  discourse, 
as  must  be  done  upon  any  method,  and  not  only  to  spend 
many  hours  in  writing  it  out  in  full,  as  the  reader  also 
must  do,  but  to  give  other  hours,  and  with  most  men  not  a 
few,  to  the  task  of  memorizing.  For  one  who  preaches 
two  or  three  times  a  week  to  write  and  memorize  all  his 
sermons,  is,  if  not  impossible,  certainly  incompatible  with 
patient  and  profound  thinking  in  preparation,  with  wide 
general  improvement,  and  with  the  proper  performance  of 
a  pastor's  other  duties.  The  painful  dread  of  failure  is 
also  a  very  serious  objection  to  recitation,  a  dread  from 
which  the  preacher  can  for  no  moment  be  free  till  the 
delivery  begins,  and  which  is  then  only  heightened.  For 
the  extemporaneous  speaker,  anxiety  as  to  failure  may 
cause  a  helpful  excitement;  but  to  him  who  recites  it 
brings  no  benefit,  but  only  distress.  We  are  told  that 
Bourdaloue  would  often  keep  his  eyes  shut  throughout  the 
sermon ;  and  upon  being  asked  the  reason,  explained  that 
he  was  afraid  he  might  see  some  occurrence  which  would 
distract  his  attention,  and  cause  him  to  forget.  In  so  great 
a  man  this  is  lamentable,  pitiable,  —  of  course  it  is  an 
extreme  case.  Furthermore,  the  delivery  of  what  is 
recited  must  alwajs  be  more  or  less  artificial.  Whatever 
may  be  done  with  occasional  brief  passages,  such  as  Lord 
Brougham  boasted  his  ability  to  introduce  into  an  extem- 
poraneous discourse  without  its  being  possible  for  the 
auditor  to  distinguish  between  them,  we  question  whether 
any  man  could  so  recite  an  entire  and  extended  discourse. 
—  verbatim  recitation,  —  as  to  prevent  the  audience  from 
86 


422  THE    THREE    METHODS    OF 

detecting,  especially  from  feeling  the  difference.  Certainly 
very  few  can  do  it,  and  we  are  discussing  general  ques- 
tions. It  is  all  very  well  to  say  that  art  must  conceal 
art.  We  ask  earnestly,  can  art  conceal  art  ?  Who  ever 
heard  Edward  Everett  in  one  of  his  orations,  without 
uneasily  feeling  that  it  was  a  splendid  unreality,  —  only 
the  finished  declamation  of  a  magnificent  composition. 
This  was  all  well  enough  in  a  great  oration,  such  as  that 
on  Washington,  because  then  one  expects  a  work  of  art, 
and  is  satisfied  and  delighted  if  the  art  be  consummate. 
We  readily  yielded  ourselves  to  the  spell,  and  were  deeply 
moved,  as  we  might  be  by  a  drama.  But  when  a  man  is 
pleading  for  the  life  of  his  client,  or  the  salvation  of  his 
country,  and  still  more  when  as  an  ambassador  on  behalf 
of  Christ,  he  prays  men  to  be  reconciled  to  God,  we  feel 
that  all  conscious  art  is  out  of  place. 

This  method,  then,  may  answer  very  well,  if  skilfully 
managed,  for  college  addresses,  for  extraordinary  orations, 
for  any  speaking  in  which  art  properly  forms  an  important 
element.  It  is  to  be  noticed,  moreover,  that  to  make  the 
delivery  as  free  and  unconstrained  as  is  possible  for  recita- 
tion, a  man  needs  —  unless  he  be  one  of  the  few  who 
possess  a  wonderful  memory  —  to  have  ample  time  for 
becoming  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  discourse.  Now 
the  great  French  and  German  preachers  who  have  adopted 
this  method,  usually  preached  much  less  frequently  than 
an  American  pastor,  and  could  afford  to  spend  all  necessary 
time  in  making  perfectly  sure  that  they  had  memorized  it. 
Beside,  Louis  the  Fourteenth's  preachers  were  expected  to 
produce  a  work  of  art,  so  that  artificiality  was  not  objec- 
tionable ;  and  in  the  case  of  a  fervent  evangelical  preacher, 
like  Adolphe  Monod,  it  was  seldom  a  real  recitation,  but 
again  and  again  would  become  free  speech  from  written 
preparation.  Wherever  preacher  and  hearers  are  satisfied 
with  the  habitual  pnctice  of  verbatim  recitation,  it  may 


PREPARATION    AND    DELIVERY.  423 

be  questioned  whether  either  party  deeply  feels  the  reality 
of  preaching.  Sydney  Smith's  inquiry,  "  What  can  be  more 
ludicrous  than  an  orator  delivering  stale  indignation,  and 
fervor  of  a  week  old  ? "  is  not  only  a  keen  sarcasm,  but 
contains  an  unanswerable  argument.  He  who  recites  must 
either  be  devoid  of  indignation  and  fervor,  or  else  the 
delivery  of  these  must  be  more  or  less  artificial ;  and  we 
repeat  that  conscious  art  cannot  be  tolerated  by  a  preacher, 
nor  manifest  art  by  a  congregation,  if  they  justly  appre- 
ciate and  deeply  feel  the  reality  of  preaching  and  hearing. 
Of  course  there  may  be  so  much  of  genuine  earnestness  in  a 
really  great  preacher,  as  in  spite  of  the  inevitable  artifici- 
ality of  manner  to  make  a  deep  impression  ;  yet  even  then, 
the  mode  of  delivery  is  a  drawback,  a  serious  one,  and 
most  serious  precisely  where  the  discourse  ought  to  be  most 
impressive. 

3.  But  may  not  a  man  write  out  his  sermon,  and  then 
speak  freely  from  this  written  preparation  ?  Certainly  ; 
some  eminent  preachers  do  this,  and  with  the  most  admir- 
able effect ;  but  that  is  not  recitation.  Some  of  these  men 
tell  us  that  they  do  not  memorize  the  discourse  at  all,  in 
the  sense  of  making  a  distinct  effort  to  remember  the  words, 
and  yet  that  they  reproduce  all  the  thoughts,  and  to  a  great 
extent  in  the  same  words,  that  they  had  written  down. 
And  as  already  remarked,  some  of  those  who  memorize, 
learn  by  degrees  to  break  away  from  recitation,  and  express 
substantially  the  same  thought  in  very  different  language. 
Now  this  is  a  wholly  distinct  thing  from  recitation.  When 
one  makes  no  effort  to  remember  the  words,  and  recalls 
them  at  all  only  by  their  association  with  the  ideas  he  is 
seeking  to  express,  the  process  lacks  the  essential  character 
of  recitation.  What  then  is  it?  The  answer  must  be  that 
free  speaking  from  written  preparation  is  only  one  of  the 
varieties  of  what  we  call  extemporaneous  speaking.  It  may 
at  first  appear  absurd  to  maintain  that  one  may  write  out  a 


424  THE    THREE     METHODS    OF 

sermon  in  full,  then  preach  extemporaneously,  and  yet  say 
very  much  what  he  had  written,  and  often  in  the  same 
words.  Accordingly,  Dr.  Skinner,  to  judge  from  a  single 
expression  in  passing,  recognizes  a  fourth  distinct  method 
of  speaking,  and  calls  it  a  reproduction  from  manuscript.* 
But  what  essential  difference  is  .there  between  this  free 
speaking  from  complete  written  preparation,  and  speaking 
from  complete  unwritten  preparation?  Robert  Hall  would 
pursue  long  trains  of  thought  without  waiting,  and  repro- 
duce them  to  a  great  extent  in  the  same  words ;  Cicero 
mentions  that  Hortensius  had  this  power ;  in  fact,  many  a 
man  of  comparatively  humble  abilities  has  sometimes  done 
likewise.  If  he  were  making  an  effort  to  repeat  the  words, 
this  would  be  recitation,  though  without  writing.  If  he 
makes  no  such  eflTort,  it  is  not  recitation,  whether  the  pre- 
paration were  written  or  unwritten.  Now  such  speaking 
from  unwritten  preparation  must,  as  every  one  would  agree, 
be  classed  as  extemporaneous  preaching  ;  why  not  assign  to 
the  same  class  all  free  speaking,  even  where  the  prepara- 
tion was  in  writing  ?  Nor  does  this  leave  any  shadowy 
boundary  between  the  two  methods.  Though  they  may 
sometimes  approach  very  closely,  though  a  practised  speaker 
may,  like  Brougham,  pass  freely  from  one  to  the  other,  yet 
they  are  separated  by  a  very  definite  and  distinct  line. 
When  one  endeavors  to  repeat  the  words  used  in  prepara- 
tion, that  is  reciting,  whether  he  wrote  them  down  or  did 
not ;  and  when  there  is  no  effort  to  repeat  the  words,  that  is 
extemporizing,  whether  the  preparation  was  partial  or  com- 
plete, purely  mental,  or  written  in  full. 

It  may  be  doubted  whether  many  persons  can  success- 
fully manage  this  peculiar  variety  of  extemporaneous  speak- 
ing. It  would  seem  that  only  a  mind  peculiarly  consti- 
tuted would  be  capable  of  freely  reproducing  what  had 

♦Discussions  in  Theology,  p.  144.  In  another  paper,  p.  185,  he 
speaks  of  this  as  the  bo"*  form  of  recitation. 


'PREPARATION    AND    DELIVERY.  425 

been  fully  written,  without  falling  into  mere  recitation. 
But  if  we  are  to  attain  just  views  as  to  the  methods  of 
preaching,  it  is  a  matter  of  no  small  importance  to  have  it 
understood  where  the  practice  in  question  really  belongs. 

§  3.      EXTEMPORANEOUS   SPEAKING. 

The  technical  meaning  of  this  expression  requires  to  be 
defined.  Primarily,  of  course,  it  denotes  speaking  without 
preparation,  simply  from  the  promptings  of  the  moment. 
The  colloquial  expression  for  this  is  speaking  "  off  hand," 
the  image  being  that  of  shooting  without  a  rest ;  and  the 
Germans  have  a  corresponding  phrase,  speaking  "from  the 
stirrup,"  as  when  one  shoots  on  horseback,  without  dis- 
mounting. This  popular  phraseology  is  suggestive.  By  a 
natural  extension,  the  phrase  extemporaneous  speaking  is 
applied  to  cases  in  which  there  has  been  preparation  of  the 
thought,  however  thorough,  but  the  language  is  left  to  be 
suggested  at  the  moment.  Still  further,  when  notes  are 
made,  as  a  help  to  preparation,  when  the  plan  of  the  dis- 
course is  drawn  out  on  paper,  and  all  the  principal  points 
are  stated  or  suggested,  we  call  it  extemporaneous  speak- 
ing, because  all  this  is  regarded  only  as  a  means  of  arrang- 
ing and  recalling  the  thoughts,  and  the  language  is  extem- 
porized. If  one  to  any  great  extent  relies  on  these  notes 
for  his  language,  then  it  is  so  far  a  recitation,  where  the 
notes  are  left  at  home,  and  reading,  where  they  are  kept 
before  him  in  the  pulpit ;  as  a  general  thing,  however,  this 
is  not  true,  and  preaching  from  notes  is  fairly  called  extem- 
poraneous. And  one  step  further  we  go,  when,  as  already 
stated,  we  insist  that  free  speaking,  after  the  discourse  has 
been  written  in  full  as  preparation,  but  without  any  eflbrt 
to  repeat  the  language  of  the  manuscript,  shall  be  called 
extemporaneous  speaking.  We  think  it  has  been  satisfac- 
torily shown  that  this  last  extension  of  the  phrase  is  proper 
36* 


426  THE    THREE    METHODS    OF 

and  necessary.  And  if  so,  then  many  eminent  men,  for 
example,  Whitfield,  who  have  usually  been  spoken  of  as 
reciting,  were  really,  in  part  or  in  whole,  extemporaneous 
preachers. 

No  intelligent  man  would  now  propose  that  preachers 
should  habitually  speak  extempore,  as  regards  the  matter. 
It  is  true  that  occasions  not  unfrequently  arise  which  make 
it  important  that  they  should  be  able  to  speak  without  any 
special  immediate  preparation  ;  but  this  will  be  done  most 
fitly  and  eflfectively  by  those  whose  habit  it  is  to  do  other- 
wise. In  truth,  the  fanatical  or  slothful  men  who  say  that 
they  never  make  any  preparation,  deceive  themselves. 
Most  of  what  they  say  has  been  prepared  by  saying  it  many 
times  before,  and  its  substance  was  originally  borrowed, 
whether  from  books,  or  from  the  preaching  of  others  and 
from  conversation.  Except  as  to  single  thoughts  suggested 
at  the  moment,  their  minds  are  led  by  association  of  ideas, 
even  though  it  be  unconsciously,  into  what  they  have  pre- 
viously worked  out.  Really  to  extemporize  the  matter  of 
preaching  is  as  impracticable  as  it  is  improper.  And  it  is 
utterly  unfair  to  represent  the  advocates  of  extemporaneous 
preaching  as  meaning  that  men  shall  preach  without  pre- 
paration. 

In  presenting  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  this 
method,  there  must  be  some  repetition  of  ideas  already 
advanced.  This  is  obviously  necessary  to  completeness, 
and  such  matters  will  now  be  regarded  from  a  different 
point  of  view. 

1.  Consider  then,  the  advantages. 

(1.)  As  regards  preparation,  this  method  accustoms  one 
to  think  more  rapidly,  and  with  less  dependence  on  external 
helps,  than  if  he  habitually  wrote  in  full. 

(2.)  It  also  enables  a  man  to  spend  his  strength  chiefly 
upon  the  more  difficult  or  more  important  parts  of  the  sub- 
ject.    When  pressed  for  time,  as  must  so  often  be  the  case 


PREPARATION     AND    DELIVERY.         427 

with  a  pastor,  he  can  get  more  thought  into  the  sermon 
than  if  all  the  time  must  be  spent  in  hurriedly  writing 
down  what  comes  uppermost.  The  choice  is  in  such  cases 
between  extemporizing  the  language  where  the  thought 
has  been  elaborated,  and  taking  the  thought  extempore  in 
order  to  prepare  the  language.  This  really  important  con- 
sideration has  been  forcibly  stated  by  Wayland  :  "A  large 
proportion  of  our  written  discourses  is  prepared  in  a  driving 
hurry,  late  on  Saturday  night,  and  sometimes  between  the 
services  on  the  Sabbath  ;  and  the  thoughts  are  huddled 
together  with  little  arrangement,  and  less  meditation.  .  .  . 
If  the  same  time  had  been  spent  in  earnest  thought,  would 
not  the  discourse  have  been  more  carefully  prepared  than 
by  the  simple  process  of  writing?  "* 

(3.)  In  general,  this  method  saves  time,  for  general 
improvement  and  for  other  pastoral  work.  Not  at  first,  to 
be  sure,  for  the  inexperienced  preacher  often  needs  more 
time  to  make  thorough  preparation  for  preaching  extem- 
pore, than  he  would  use  in  writing  ;  but  after  he  has  gained 
facility  and  self-reliance,  much  time  may  be  saved. 

(4.)  In  the  act  of  delivery,  the  extemporaneous  speaker 
has  immense  advantages.  With  far  greater  ease  and  effec- 
tiveness than  if  reading  or  reciting,  he  can  turn  to  account 
ideas  which  occur  at  the  time.  Southey  says  :  "  The 
salient  points  of  Whitfield's  oratory  were  not  prepared 
passages ;  they  were  bursts  of  passion,  like  the  jets  of  a 
geyser  when  the  spring  is  in  full  play."  f  -^^7  ™^^  ^^^ 
possesses,  even  in  an  humble  degree,  the  fervid  oratorical 
nature,  will  find  that  after  careful  preparation,  some  of  the 
noblest  and  most  inspiring  thoughts  he  ever  gains  will 
come  while  he  is  engaged  in  speaking.  If,  full  of  his  theme 
and  impressed  with  its  importance,  he  presently  secures  the 
interested  and  sympathizing  attention  of  even  a  few  good 

*  Ministry  of  the  Gospel,  p.  120. 
f  Quoted  by  Skinner,  p.  146. 


428  THE    THREE    METHODS    OF 

listeners,  and  the  fire  of  his  eyes  comes  reflected  back  from 
theirs,  till  electric  flashes  pass  to  and  fro  between  them, 
and  his  very  soul  glows  and  blazes  and  flames,  —  he  cannot 
fail  sometimes  to  strike  out  thoughts  more  splendid  and 
more  precious  than  ever  visit  his  mind  in  solitary  musing. 

(5.)  And,  as  we  have  before  seen,  there  is  a  more  im- 
portant gain  than  the  new  thoughts  elicited.  The  whole 
mass  of  prepared  material  becomes  brightened,  warmed, 
sometimes  transfigured,  by  this  inspiration  of  delivery. 
The  preacher's  language  rises,  without  conscious  effort,  to 
suit  the  heightened  grandeur  and  beauty  of  his  conceptions ; 
and,  as  Everett  has  expressed  it  in  speaking  of  Webster, 
"the  discourse  instinctively  transposes  itself  into  a  higher 
key."  This  exaltation  of  soul,  rising  at  times  to  rapture, 
can  never  be  fitly  described  ;  but  the  speaker  who  does  not 
in  some  measure  know  what  it  means,  was  not  born  to  be  a 
speaker.  And  great  stress  should  be  laid  upon  the  fact  that 
besides  the  thoughts  which  then  first  occur  to  the  mind, — 
a  matter  constantly  remarked,  —  there  is  this  effect  of  far 
greater  importance  produced  by  delivery,  in  changing  the 
form  and  color,  and  incalculably  augmenting  the  power  of 
the  thoughts  previously  prepared. 

(6.)  Moreover,  the  preacher  can  watch  the  eflfect  as  he 
proceeds,  and  purposely  alter  the  forms  of  expression,  as 
well  as  the  manner  of  delivery,  according  to  his  own  feel- 
ing, and  that  of  the  audience.  Especially  in  the  hortatory 
parts  of  a  sermon,  which  are  often  the  most  important 
parts,  will  this  adaptation  be  desirable.  If  preacher  and 
hearers  have  been  wrought  up  to  intense  excitement,  then 
it  will  be  proper  to  use  strong  figures,  impassioned  excla- 
mations, and  in  general  to  speak  the  language  of  passion. 
Nothing  else  would  then  be  natural,  and  if  in  such  a  case 
one's  language  be  unfigurative  and  quiet,  it  is  felt  by  the 
disappointed  hearers  to  be  flat  and  tame,  and  no  vehemence 
of  mere  delivery  can  supply  the  deficiency.     Still  worse  is 


PREPARATION    AND    DELIVER-y.         429 

the  efiect  if  feeling  has  not  risen  high,  and  the  preacher 
comes  to  language  previously  prepared  which  is  figurative 
and  passionate.  If  now  his  manner  accords,  as  it  ought 
always  to  do,  with  the  actual  feeling  of  himself  and  his 
hearers,  there  will  be  a  painful  incongruity  between  the 
delivery  and  the  style  ;  if  he  strives  to  rise  to  his  prepared 
language,  any  partial  success  in  so  doing  will  but  put  him 
out  of  harmony  with  the  feelings  of  the  audience.  Surely 
no  one  can  question  that  this  consideration  is  one  of  im- 
mense importance.  What  preacher  has  not  often  found  in 
repeating  a  sermon  to  another  audience,  that  there  was  a 
difference,  and  sometimes  a  very  great  difference,  in  the 
feeling  with  which  he  and  his  hearers  approached  the  clos- 
ing exhortation  ?  A  few  sentences  then,  which  in  concep- 
tion, style,  and  delivery  strike  precisely  the  right  key,  will 
wonderfully  enhance  the  effect  of  the  whole  discourse. 
What  that  right  key  will  be,  no  man  of  oratorical  nature 
can  always  foretell.  Here,  then,  the  reader  or  reciter  must 
inevitably  fail,  while  the  cultivated  extemporaneous  speaker 
easily  and  naturally  rises  or  falls  to  suit  the  feeling  of  the 
moment.  But  some  one  might  reply,  "I  do  not  aim  at  high 
oratorical  effects.  I  am  content  with  more  modest  efforts." 
That  of  which  we  speak  is  constantly  practised  by  some 
humble  men  in  prayer-meeting  addresses.  It  is  the  simple 
rhetoric  of  nature. 

(7.)  And  here  let  it  be  asked,  What  of  dependence  upon 
the  Holy  Spirit,  and  prayer  for  his  help  in  preaching? 
How  can  a  man  pray  that  God  will  guide  him  through  a 
forest,  when  he  has  already  blazed  the  entire  path,  and 
committed  himself  to  follow  it?  Of  course  one  should  seek 
help  in  preparing  his  discourse,  and  if  he  reads,  should 
pray  that  he  might  be  enabled  to  feel  aright  in  reading. 
But  how  much  more  natural  is  such  prayer,  how  much 
more  real  the  dependence  upon  Divine  assistance,  how 
much  freer  the  opening  for  the  Spirit  really  to  help,  if  the 


430  THE    THKEE    METHODS    OF 

sermon  is  not  already  cast  in  moulds,  but  the  material 
■which  has  been  gathered,  is  now  molten  in  the  mind, 
and  the  ultimate  process  remains  to  be  performed. 

(8.)  As  to  the  delivery  itself,  it  is  only  in  extempora- 
neous speaking,  of  one  or  another  variety,  that  this  can 
ever  be  perfectly  natural,  and  achieve  the  highest  effect. 
The  ideal  of  speaking,  it  has  been  justly  said,  cannot  be 
reached  in  any  other  way.  Only  thus  will  the  voice,  the 
action,  the  eye,  be  just  what  nature  dictates,  and  attain 
their  full  power.  And  while  painstaking  culture  vainly 
strives  to  read  or  recite  precisely  like  speaking,  the  extem- 
poraneous speaker  may  with  comparative  ease,  rise  to  the 
best  delivery  of  which  he  is  capable.  In  this  way,  too,  as 
before  remarked,  we  most  readily  gain  the  sympathy  of  our 
hearers ;  they  are  sympathizing  with  a  man,  not  a  com- 
position,—  a  man  all  alive  with  thoughts  he  is  now  think- 
ing, and  fervors  he  is  now  feeling,  and  not  simply  reviving, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  thought  and  feeling  of  some  former 
time. 

(9.)  It  is  also  an  advantage  of  this  method  that  it  gives 
facility  in  speaking  without  immediate  preparation.  The 
preacher  who  cannot  do  this  upon  occasion  misses  many 
opportunities  of  usefulness,  and  loses  influence  with  the 
people  by  an  incapacity  which  they  consider  a  reproach. 

(10.)  This  leads  to  what  is  really  among  the  most  im- 
portant advantages  of  extemporaneous  preaching.  With 
the  masses  of  the  people,  it  is  the  'popular  method.  Where 
principle  is  involved,  one  ought  to  withstand  the  notions 
of  the  people;  but  when  it  is  a  mere  question  of  expe- 
diency,—  and  the  present  question  is  nothing  more,  —  then 
a  general  and  very  decided  popular  preference  is  an  exceed- 
ingly important  consideration.  It  does  not  mend  the  mat- 
ter to  sneer  at  the  folly  of  the  masses,  in  so  often  preferring 
ignorant  preachers  who  thoroughly  sympathize  with  them, 
and  speak  in  the  way  they  like.     There  is  real  and  grave 


PREPARATION    AND    DELIVERY.         431 

danger  that  we  shall  "educate  away  from  the  people." 
Here,  now,  is  one  respect  in  which  educated  preachers 
have  it  in  their  power  to  suit  the  popular  taste,  and  gain 
the  popular  sympathy.  If  some  obstacles  to  such  sympathy 
can  be  but  partially  removed,  there  need  be  no  difficulty 
with  this  obstacle.  Those  denominations,  in  particular, 
whose  strength  has  always  been  with  the  masses,  ought  to 
make  almost  everything  bend  to  retain  their  hold  upon  the 
people.  No  doubt  some  congregations  have  been  educated 
into  a  toleration  of  reading,  but  it  is  almost  always  an 
unwilling  acquiescence,  or  a  high  regard  for  some  man's 
preaching  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  reads.  No  doubt 
there  are  half-educated  and  fastidious  people  who  greatly 
prefer  reading  or  recitation.  But  the  thoroughly  educated 
fully  agree  with  the  masses  as  to  what  is  generally  the  best 
method.  And  instead  of  striving  to  educate  the  people 
into  enduring  what  they  will  never  like,  and  what  can 
never  so  deeply  move  them,  let  the  preacher  educate  him- 
self into  preaching  in  such  a  way  that  he  can  reach  and 
hold  the  masses,  and  leave  the  fastidious  few  to  think  what 
they  please. 

2.  But  we  must  turn  to  the  disadvantages  of  extempo- 
raneous speaking,  some  of  which  require  not  only  careful 
consideration  in  argument,  but  very  watchful  attention  in 
practice. 

(1.)  Perhaps  the  gravest  of  them  all  consists  in  the 
tendency  to  neglect  of  preparation,  after  one  has  gained 
facility  in  unaided  thinking  and  extemporized  expression. 
Men  are  prone  to  abuse  all  their  privileges ;  but  it  is  a 
superficial  philosophy  which  thence  concludes  that  privi- 
leges should  be  avoided.  And  if  many  extemporizers  grow 
indolent,  and  rely  too  much  upon  the  suggestions  of  the 
moment,  at  least  they  must  at  the  moment  have  some  men- 
tal activit}'' ;  whereas  the  same  indolent  men,  if  accustomed 
to  read  or  recite,  would  repeat  sermons  long  ago  prepared, 


432  THE    THREE     METHODS    OF 

with  tlieir  minds  no  longer  active,  nor  tlieir  hearts  truly 
warm.  This  tendeucy  to  neglect  of  preparation  is  real  and 
powerful,  but  it  may  be  resisted,  and  many  extemporizers 
do  resist  it,  continuing  through  life  to  prepare  their  ser- 
mons with  care;  and  as  just  intimated,  it  is  only  many 
readers,  and  by  no  means  all,  that  do  likewise. 

(2.)  There  is  difficulty  in  fixing  the  mind  upon  the  work 
of  preparation  without  writing  in  full.  This  may  be  re- 
moved by  practice.  At  the  outset,  it  can  be  overcome 
either  by  making  copious  notes,  or  by  speaking  the  subject 
over  in  private. 

(3.)  The  extemporizer  cannot  quote  so  largely  as  the 
reader,  from  Scripture,  or  from  the  writings  of  others.  But 
he  is  likely  to  quote  only  what  is  really  important  to  the 
subject,  and  thus  easily  remembered.  Facility  of  quota- 
tion is  not  an  unmitigated  blessing.  Those  who  read  often 
quote  long  passages  which  do  not  increase,  which  some- 
times positively  diminish,  the  interest  and  impressiveness 
of  the  sermon.  What  fits  exactly,  we  repeat,  can  be  easily 
remembered.  Besides,  it  is  often  much  better  to  borrow 
(with  some  sort  of  acknowledgment)  the  ideas  of  others,  but 
state  them  in  our  own  language.  People  are  almost  always 
more  interested  in  this  than  in  extended  quotations.  Where 
the  quotation  of  the  language  itself  is  really  important, 
and  the  passage  long,  one  may  read  it  from  his  Bible,  or  if 
from  some  other  source,  may  write  it  off  and  read  it,  ex- 
pressly as  an  important  quotation.  Perhaps  a  man  who  com- 
monly speaks  in  an  easy  and  familiar  manner  might  carry 
with  him  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  Paradise  Lost,  or  a  vol- 
ume of  Spurgeon,  and  just  take  it  up  as  the  lawyers  do, 
and  read  an  extract.  Something  like  this  is  frequently 
done  in  controversial  sermons  and  public  discussions. 

(4.)  The  style  of  an  extemporaneous  sermon  is  apt  to  be 
less  condensed  and  less  finished,  than  if  it  were  written  out 
and  read  or  recited.     But  this  is  not  necessarily  a  fault. 


PREPARATION     iKD    DELIVERY.  433 

The  style  may  be  all  the  better  adapted  to  speaking,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  essay-style.  That  there  is  a  real  and 
broad  difference  between  these,  has  been  strongly  asserted 
by  such  masters  of  effective  speaking  as  Fox  and  Pitt  and 
Brougham.  Copiousness,  amplification,  even  the  frequent 
repetition  of  .a  thought  under  new  forms  or  with  other 
illustrations,  are  often  absolutely  necessary  in  addressing  a 
popular  audience,  even  if  it  be  as  cultivated  as  the  House 
of  Commons.  Paragraphs  of  this  sort  may  be  preceded  or 
followed  by  terse,  pithy  statements,  such  as  those  which 
occur  so  strikingly  in  the  Epistle  of  James.  IS'ow  we  learn 
the  writing  style  by  writing,  and  we  must  form  the  speak- 
ing style  in  the  process  of  actual  speaking.*  In  the  case 
of  definitions,  or  other  brief  passages  in  which  the  language 
becomes  especially  important,  one  may  fix  beforehand, 
whether  with  or  without  writing,  the  precise  terms  to  be 
employed.  While,  however,  a  condensed  and  highly  fin- 
ished style  is  not  generally  to  be  sought  after  in  speaking 
which  aims  to  make  any  practical  impression,  there  is 
danger  of  a  wearisome  repetition,  of  "  linked  dulness  long 
drawn  out,"  especially  of  what  some  one  calls  "  conclusions 
which  never  conclude."  This  danger  can  be  obviated  by 
care  in  preparation  and  in  speaking,  and  by  the  constant 
practice  of  careful  writing  for  other  purposes. 

(5.)  The  success  of  an  extemporaneous  sermon  is  largely 
dependent  upon  the  preacher's  feelings  at  the  time  of  de- 
livery, and  upon  the  circumstances ;  so  that  he  is  liable  to 
decided  failure.  It  is  by  this,  more  than  anything  else, 
that  many  men  are  restrained  from  attempting  to  extem- 
porize. And  yet  this  is  a  condition  by  which  preachers 
will  much  oftener  gain  than  lose.  A  man  not  capable  of 
failing,  can  never  be  eloquent.  If  he  has  not  so  excitable 
a  nature,  so  sensitive  a  sympathy  with  his  surroundings,  as 
to  be  greatly  depressed  by  very  unfavorable  circumstances, 

*  Comp.  Part  III,  chap.  1,  ^  2. 
87 


434  THE    THKEE    METHODS    OF 

then  the  most  favorable  conditions  will  not  greatly  exalt 
and  inspire  him.  In  like  manner  a  method  of  preaching 
which  renders  failure  impossible,  also  renders  the  greatest 
impressiveness  impossible.  Preserved  from  falling  below 
a  certain  level,  the  preacher  will  also  be  hindered  from 
soaring  as  high  above  it  as  would  otherwise  be  in  his  power. 
Nay,  let  a  man  commit  himself  to  the  occasion  and  the 
subject,  —  let  him  take  heart  and  strike  out  boldly,  sink  or 
swim. 

(6.)  If  the  sermon  is  to  be  used  again,  and  has  not  been 
written  out  in  full,  it  requires  some  renewed  preparation. 
But  this,  too,  is  rather  a  gain  than  a  loss  ;  for  thus  the  dis- 
course can  be  more  easily  and  exactly  adapted  to  the  new 
circumstances.  A  sermon  precisely  suited  to  one  audience 
and  occasion  would  usually  be,  at  least  in  many  of  its  de- 
tails, quite  unsuited  to  any  other ;  and  it  is  only  the  extem- 
poraneous speaker  that  can  readily  make  the  requisite 
changes,  which  are  often  slight  and  delicate,  but  surpass- 
ingly important  to  the  practical  result.  Besides,  while  the 
times  change,  we  are  changing  in  them.  A  sermon  pre- 
pared years  ago  will  often  need  no  little  modification  in 
order  to  suit  the  altered  opinions,  tastes,  and  feelings  of  the 
preacher  himself.  And  then  the  necessity  for  reworking 
the  preparation  makes  it  all  fresh  to  the  preacher's  mind, 
and  warm  again  to  his  heart.  So  the  extemporaneous 
method  does  make  the  repeated  use  of  the  same  sermon 
more  laborious,  but  it  also  serves  to  make  it  much  more 
effective. 

(7.)  Still  another,  and  a  serious  disadvantage  of  this 
method  is  in  its  tendency  to  prevent  one's  forming  the  habit 
of  writing.  As  fluency  increases,  the  contrast  between 
winged,  glorious  speech,  and  slow,  toilsome  writing,  becomes 
to  many  men  too  great  for  their  patience,  and  there  grows 
upon  them  what  some  one  felicitously  calls  a  calamophohia, 
a  dread  of  the  pen.     And  not  only  does  this  cut  them  off 


PREPARATION    AN  f)    DELIVERY.  435 

from  many  important  means  of  usefulness,  — especially  iu 
our  day,  the  era  of  the  printing-press,  —  but  it  reacts  disas- 
trously upon  their  power  of  speaking.  Both  the  beginner  in 
oratory  and  the  experienced,  ready  speaker,  must  constrain 
themselves  to  write,  much  and  carefully.  Not,  indeed,  to 
write  out  what  they  are  about  to  speak,  unless  they  belong 
to  the  class  who  can  speak  freely  after  fully  written  pre- 
paration, but  to  write  for  other  purposes, — essays  and  exe- 
geses, by  way  of  thoroughly  studying  a  passage  or  subject, 
articles  for  publication,  sermons  after  preaching  them,  and 
the  like.  Thus  their  habits  of  writing  and  of  speaking  will 
maintain  an  equilibrium  in  their  methods  of  thinking  and 
style  of  expression,  while  yet  each  is  practiced  according  to 
its  own  essential  and  distinctive  character.* 

Let  it  now  be  carefully  observed  that  all  the  disadvan- 
tages of  extemporaneous  speaking  are  such  as  can  be  com- 
pletely obviated  by  resolute  and  judicious  effort,  while  read- 
ing and  recitation  have  many  inherent  disadvantages,  which 
may,  of  course,  be  more  or  less  diminished,  but  can  never 
be  removed.  Let  this  be  noticed.  The  born  speaker  will 
be  able  to  overcome  the  difficulties  of  extemporaneous 
speaking,  and  will  find  here,  and  here  alone,  free  play  for 
his  powers.  We  are  not  referring  to  the  few  great  orators, 
but  to  all  who  have  really  a  native  talent  for  speaking, 
including  some  in  whom  this  long  remains  undeveloped, 
through  lack  of  exercise  or  wrong  methods.  Some  men, 
not  born  speakers,  but  anxious  to  do  good,  and  zealous 
pastors,  may  be  able  to  write  and  read  tolerably  instructive 
and  acceptable  discourses,  while  they  could  never  preach 
extemporaneously.  But  certainly  what  is  best  for  them, 
is  not  thereby  shown  to  be  best  in  general.  Methods  of 
speaking  ought  to  be  chosen  according  to  the  wants  and  the 
powers  of  those  who  have  some  gift  as  speakers.  Very  few, 
if  any  others,  ought  to  make  speaking  their  business. 
♦Comp.  on  the  construction  of  paragraphs,  Part  III,  chap.  2,  2. 


436  THE    THREE    METHODS    OF 

§4.      BRIEF   HISTORY   OF    THE   THREE   METHODS. 

No  doubt  men  spoke  in  public  before  writing  was  in- 
vented, as  often  now  among  savage  tribes ;  and  from  the 
beginning,  some  of  these  speeches  must  have  been  thought 
out  beforehand,  and  even  their  language  to  some  extent 
fixed.  When  writing  became  common,  it  was  natural  that 
sometimes  the  preparation  should  be  made  in  writing.  We 
find  the  great  Greek  and  Roman  orators  either  extemporiz- 
ing or  reciting ;  and  much  in  their  practice  that  is  com- 
monly spoken  of  as  recitation,  appears  to  have  been  really 
free  speech  from  written  preparation.  Lord  Brougham, 
who  was  a  most  devoted  and  appreciative  student  of 
Demosthenes,  has  unhesitatingly  asserted  that  "  no  Athe- 
nian audience  could  have  followed  Demosthenes  in  the  con- 
densed form  in  which  his  speeches  are  printed."  Burke 
and  Fenelon  express  themselves  to  the  same  efiect.  If 
reading  speeches  was  ever  practiced  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  or  reading  sermons  among  the  early  Christians, 
it  was  a  rare  and  exceptional  thing.  "The  sermons,"  says 
Neander,  speaking  of  the  age  of  Chrysostom  and  Augus- 
tine, "  were  sometimes,  though  rarely,  read  off  entirely  from 
notes,  or  committed  to  memory ;  sometimes  they  were  freely 
delivered,  after  a  plan  prepared  beforehand  ;  and  sometimes 
they  were  altogether  extemporaiy.  The  last  we  learn  inci- 
dentally, from  being  informed  that  Augustine  was  occa-^ 
sionally  directed  to  the  choice  of  a  subject  by  the  passage 
which  the  'prselector'  had  selected  for  reading;  when,  he 
tells  us,  he  was  sometimes  urged  by  some  impression  of 
the  moment,  to  give  his  sermon  a  different  turn  from  what 
he  had  originally  proposed.  We  are  also  informed  by 
Chrysostom,  that  his  subject  was  frequently  suggested  to 
him  by  something  he  met  with  on  his  way  to  church,  or 
which  suddenly  occurred  during  divine  service."  * 

*  Church  Hist.  II,  317.     He  cites  no  authority  for  the  statement 


PREPAKA.TION    AND    DELIVERY.  437 

The  practice  of  reading  sermons,  as  a  frequent  thing,  is 
generally  believed  to  have  originated  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  "  Those  who  were  licensed  to  preach,"  says  Burnet, 
in  his  History  of  the  Keforraation,  "being  often  accused  for 
their  sermons,  and  complaints  being  made  to  the  King  by 
hot  men  on  both  sides,  they  came  generally  to  write  and 
read  their  sermons,  and  thence  the  reading  of  sermons  grew 
into  a  practice  in  this  church  ;  in  which  if  there  was  not 
that  heat  of  fire  which  the  friars  had  shown  in  their 
declamations,  so  that  the  passions  of  the  hearers  were  not  so 
much  wrought  on  by  it,  yet  it  has  produced  the  greatest 
treasure  of  weighty,  grave,  and  solid  sermons  that  ever  the 
Church  of  God  had ;  which  does  in  a  great  measure  com- 
pensate that  seeming  flatness  to  vulgar  ears,  that  is  in  the 
delivery  of  them."  *  The  practice  increased  in  consequence 
of  the  civil  wars,  especially  through  strong  dislike  to  the 
inipassioned  preaching  of  the  Independents,  Charles  II, 
not  accustomed,  on  the  Continent,  to  this  tamer  method, 
vainly  attempted  to  correct  it,  as  shown  by  the  following 
curious  letter,  extracted  by  Gresley  from  the  statute-book 
of  the  University  of  Cambridge  : 

Vice  -  Chancellok  and  Gentlemen  ;  Whereas  his  Majesty  is 
informed  that  the  practice  of  reading  sermons  is  generally  taken 
up  by  the  preachers  before  the  university,  and  therefore  continuea 
even  before  himself;  his  Majesty  hath  commanded  me  to  signify 
to  you  his  pleasure,  that  the  said  practice,  which  took  its  begin- 
ning from  the  disorders  of  the  late  times,  be  wholly  laid  aside,  and 
that  the  said  preachers  deliver  their  sermons,  both  in  Latin  and 

that  sermons  were  sometimes  read,  nor  does  Bingham.  Paniel,  in 
his  copious  History  of  Preaching  (in  German),  makes  no  such  state- 
ment. It  is  perhaps  only  an  inference  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
common  to  preach  other  men's  sermons;  yet  this  would  have  been 
done  by  committing  them  to  memory,  or  appropriating  their  trains 
of  thought.  Scholars  who  make  a  specialty  of  Church  History, 
might  settle  the  question  for  us. 

■''  Quoted  bj  Gresley  on  Preaching,  p.  391. 
37* 


438  THE    THREE    METHODS    OP 

English,  by  memor3%  without  books  ;  as  being  a  way  of  preaching 
which  his  Majesty  judgeth  most  agreeable  to  the  use  of  foreign 
churches,  to  the  custom  of  the  university  heretofore,  and  to  the 
nature  of  that  holy  exercise  :  and  that  his  Majesty's  command  in 
these  premises  be  duly  regarded  and  observed,  his  further  pleasure 
is,  that  the  names  of  all  such  ecclesiastical  persons  as  shall  continue 
the  present  supine  and  slothful  Avay  of  preaching  be,  from  time  to 
time,  signified  to  him  by  the  Vice-Chancellor  for  the  time  being,  on 
pain  of  his  Majesty's  displeasure. 

Oct.  8th,  1674.  Monmouth. 

The  effort  failed,  and  reading  was  frequently  practiced 
in  the  Church  of  England.  To  this  day,  however,  it  is 
quite  rare  on  the  Continent,  and  among  Romanists  every- 
where, and  is  common  only  among  certain  Protestants  of 
England  and  America.  The  few  Episcopal  ministers  in  this 
country  who  extemporize,  are  surpassingly  popular,  even 
among  their  own  brethren,  where  they  manage  it  effec- 
tively. Many  leading  Presbyterian  ministers,  and  some  of 
their  ecclesiastical  authorities,  have  discouraged  reading, 
and  even  vehemently  condemned  it. 

Most  of  the  eminent  examples  of  reading  admit  of  some 
explanation.  Jonathan  Edwards,  late  in  life,  regretted  the 
practice,  and  believed  that  it  was  better  to  preach  memoriter 
for  the  most  part,  sometimes  extemporizing.*  Dr.  Chal- 
mers, so  often  adduced,  as  if  the  example  of  a  very  pecu- 
liar man  could  establish  a  rule,  declared  himself  unable 
to  extemporize.  But  look  at  his  style.  He  was  extremely, 
in  fact  excessively  fond  of  long  sentences,  formed  of  nicely 
balanced  clauses,  with  the  corresponding  terms  in  each 
clause  often  indicated  by  alliteration,  and  he  had  an  exceed- 
ing desire  to  achieve  quaint  felicities  of  phraseology.  His 
images  are  frequently  drawn  on  a  grand  and  elaborate  scale, 
and  he  was  fastidious  as  to  their  color  and  finish.  These 
well-known  peculiarities  go  far  to  account  for  his  persuasion 

*  Hoppin,  p.  71. 


PREPARATION    AND    DELIVERY.  439 

that  he  could  not  extemporize.  It  would  be  almost  as 
difficult  to  improvise  a  choral  ode,  as  some  of  those  elabo- 
rate passages  in  which  he  delighted.  And  after  all,  Dr. 
Wayland  states,*  "  A  gentleman  who  was  in  the  habit  of 
hearing  him,  has  assured  me  that  his  extempore  discourses, 
delivered  to  operatives  in  the  outskirts  of  Glasgow,  were 
far  more  effective,  and  more  truly  eloquent,  than  the  ser- 
mons which  he  delivered  with  so  much  applause  in  the 
Tron  church  of  that  city ; "  —  and  there  is  other  testimony 
to  the  same  effect. 

§  5.      GENERAL   AND   SPECIAL    PREPARATION   FOR 
EXTEMPORANEOUS   PREACHING. 

The  preacher  should  be  careful  of  his  health,  not  only 
on  other  accounts,  but  because  speaking,  real  speaking, 
demands  a  high  degree  of  nervous  energy  and  poAver  of 
endurance.  Many  a  noble  sermon  is  spoiled  by  the  fact 
that  the  preacher  begins  to  flag  physically  toward  the 
close,  and  can  neither  feel  high- wrought  emotion,  nor  speak 
with  passion  and  power. 

He  should  cultivate  accuracy  and  rapidity  of  thinking, 
and  should  discipline  himself  to  pursue  trains  of  thought' 
without  interruption,  and  as  far  as  possible  without  depend- 
ence on  outward  helps.  He  must  get  his  knowledge  of 
Scripture,  and  all  his  knowledge  (as  far  as  may  be)  at  his 
tongue's  end.  The  habit  of  keeping  one's  knowledge  fit  for 
service,  so  that  he  can  at  once  state  what  he  knows  or  thinks 
on  subjects  he  has  studied,  will  preserve  from  the  danger 
of  breaking  down,  and  will  enable  him  to  prepare  sermons 
with  equal  thoroughness  in  a  shorter  time. 

Great  attention  ought  to  be  given  to  the  use  of  language 

*  Ministry  of  the  Gospel,  p.  126.  See  also  the  account  of  Chal- 
mers' speeches  in  the  General  Assembly,  in  Hanna's  Memoir,  Vol. 
IV,  114,  199,  438 


440  THE    THREE    METHODS    OF 

in  ordinary  writing  and  conversation.  There  should  be 
the  habit  of  seeking  the  most  exact  terms,  and  of  construct- 
ing sentences  which  shall  be  grammatical,  and  yet  simple 
and  easy.  The  most  familiar  conversation  should  not  de- 
generate into  slang,  nor  the  most  dignified  into  pedantry. 
There  should  be  no  such  marked  difference  as  is  often  seen, 
between  a  man's  style  in  public  speaking,  and  in  conversa- 
tion. These  should  not  be  different  instruments,  but  simply 
a  higher  or  lower  range  on  the  same  instrument.  Children 
are  taught  that  to  make  sure  of  being  polite  when  visiting, 
they  must  be  polite  every  day  at  home.  So  Coquerel  says, 
"  In  order  to  speak  well  sometimes,  it  is  necessary  to  speak 
well  always."  Certainly  this  is  necessary  in  order  that  one 
may  feel  sure  of  being  able  to  speak  well  at  any  time. 
And  the  man  who  forms  such  habits  need  not  be  uneasy, 
for  his  use  of  language  can  never  be  excessively  bad. 

A  young  preacher  who  wishes  to  extemporize  ought  to 
begin  it  at  once.  Mr.  Zincke's  method  *  may  do  very 
well  for  one  who  has  been  reading  till  middle  age,  and 
then  sets  himself  to  speak  extempore,  but  it  is  by  no 
means  best  for  the  young.  Probably  the  greatest  and 
most  common  of  blunders  about  this  whole  matter  lies 
just  here.  Authors,  professors,  pastors,  often  say  to  the 
young  minister:  "Certainly,  extemporaneous  preaching  is 
best,  if  properly  practised,  and  I  hope  you  will  learn  to 
extemporize.  But  do  not  think  of  attempting  it  at  first. 
Begin  by  reading,  —  or  preaching  memoriter,  —  and  grad- 
ually use  yourself  to  extemporizing."  So  he  begins,  forms 
all  his  habits  of  thinking,  of  constructing  discourse,  his 
mastery  of  expression,  style,  delivery,  everything,  to  suit 
the  other  method,  —  and  a  speaker's  habits  for  life  are  very 
soon  formed, — and  after  a  few  years,  occasionally  attempts 
to  preach  in  a  way  for  which  he  has  not  trained  himself, 

*  The  Duty  and  the  Discipline  of  Extemporary  Preaching,  by 
F.  B.  Zincke. 


PREPARATION    AND    DELIVERY.  441 

and  wliich  is  in  many  respects  quite  different.  Who  can 
wonder  that  he  fails,  grows  discouraged,  and  falls  back 
upon  the  continued  practice  of  the  other  method,  as  some- 
how the  best  for  him?  Nay,  let  a  man  begin  at  once  what 
he  intends  to  make  the  habit  of  his  life. 

Lord  Brougham  insists  that  one  must  first  learn  to  speak 
easily  and  fluently,  sacrificing  everything  to  this  as  the 
prime  requisite;  and  afterwards  learn  to  "convert  this  kind 
of  easy  speaking  into  chaste  eloquence."  In  saying  this, 
he  supposes  himself  to  "diflTer  from  all  other  doctors  of 
rhetoric."  And  in  fact  the  advice  usually  given  follows 
the  saying  of  Quintilian  :  "It  is  not  by  writing  fast  that 
we  come  to  write  well,  but  by  writing  well  that  we  learn 
to  write  fast."  Probably  difi^erent  classes  of  minds  are 
thought  of  in  the  two  cases.  If  a  young  man  finds  himself 
not  fluent,  but  slow  and  hesitating  in  speech,  then  let  him 
follow  Brougham's  advice,  and  learn,  at  all  hazards,  to 
speak  with  ease,  though  he  should  at  first  violate  all  the 
rules  of  rhetoric  and  even  of  grammar.  But  if,  as  is  more 
commonly  the  case,  he  is  ready  and  fluent,  then  he  must 
rigorously  discipline  himself  to  precision  of  expression. 
"The  old  and  finished  speaker  always  uses  fewer  and 
choicer  words,  than  the  young  orator."*  Command  of 
language  does  not  consist  in  what  Huet  disrespectfully 
called  une  fluxe  de  bouche,  in  a  mere  gush  of  words,  but  in 
the  ability  to  bring  forward  precisely  the  right  word  at  the 
moment  it  is  wanted. 

The  extemporaneous  preacher  must  carefully  arrange  his 
sermon,  according  to  the  natural  order  of  the  thoughts,  and 
then  he  will  have  no  difficulty  in  remembering.  The  ser- 
mon must  not  wander  at  will  over  the  subject,  but  have  its 
distinct  and  well-marked  points,  and  advance  steadily  from 
one  to  another.  In  both  these  respects,  what  helps  him 
will  also  greatly  help  the  hearer.  Whether  it  has  any 
*  Shedd,  p.  238. 


442  THE    THREE    METHODS    OF 

formal  division  or  not,  a  popular  address  should  always 
have  points.  And  it  is  one  advantage  of  extemporaneous 
speaking,  that  it  compels  to  such  an  arrangement.  If 
now  one  has  stretching  before  him  a  well-defined  track  of 
thought,  divided  by  natural  landmarks  into  distinct  sec- 
tions, he  can  diverge  from  it  upon  occasion  and  return 
without  difficulty.* 

If  a  preacher  makes  notes  in  preparing,  as  it  is  usually 
best  to  do,  he  ought,  in  general,  not  to  carry  them  into  the 
pulpit.  Particular  subjects  or  modes  of  treatment  will 
sometimes  make  this  desirable.  But  in  general,  one  should 
take  time  enough  beforehand  to  get  the  matter  of  the  ser- 
mon in  solution  in  his  mind,  so  that  it  can  flow  freely  ;  or, 
to  resume  the  other  figure,  to  get  the  track  he  is  to  follow 
so  clear  to  his  mental  vision,  that  he  can  flash  a  single 
glance  from  beginning  to  end  of  it.  This  is  not  memoriz- 
ing words,  and  with  a  little  practice  it  can  be  quickly  done. 
In  other  respects,  too,  great  benefit  will  be  derived  from 
this  necessity  of  going  thoroughly  over  the  prepared  matter 
shortly  before  preaching,  for  thus  the  mind  and  heart  be- 
come kindled,  and  brought  into  sympathy  with  the  particu- 
lar subject  to  be  treated.  Sometimes  the  very  words  ought 
to  be  fixed  beforehand.  This  applies  generally  to  defini- 
tions, frequently  to  transitions,  and  sometimes  to  images, 
such  as  must  be  presented  with  precision  and  elegance,  or 
they  will  be  worse  than  nothing.  Such  preparation  of  par- 
ticular sentences  may  be  made  in  writing  and  memorized, 
or  may  be  altogether  mental.  The  advice  is  often  given, 
to  memorize  the  introduction,  and  extemporize  the  lan- 
guage of  the  remainder  of  the  discourse.  This  is  of  ques- 
tionable propriety.    It  gives  a  formal  air  at  the  outset,  and 

*  "My  earnest  advice  to  you  is  that  you  never  make  the  attempt 
to  extemporize  without  being  sure  of  your  matter.  Of  all  the  defects 
of  utterance  I  have  ever  known  the  most  serious  is  having  npthing 
tr  utter."     A  exander,  Thoughts  on  Preaching,  p.  142. 


PREPARATION    AND    DELIVERY.  443 

is  apt  to  make  the  transition  precipitous.  Passages  of 
Scripture  which  are  to  be  quoted,  or  other  proposed  quota- 
tions, should  be  gone  over  in  the  mind  during  the  immediate 
preparation,  that  there  may  be  no  blundering  or  hesitation. 

We  now  see  how  the  inexperienced  young  preacher  may 
speak  extemporaneously  without  any  great  danger  of  utter 
failure.  Let  him  arrange  the  discourse  with  great  care, 
and  again  and  again  think  through  the  whole,  making  no 
effort  to  retain  the  words  he  lights  upon  (save  as  to  defini- 
tions, etc.),  but  getting  the  thoughts,  and  their  succession, 
perfectly  familiar.  Speaking  it  over  in  his  room  or  in  the 
forest  is  not  wrong,  and  some  find  it  in  their  early  prepa- 
rations very  useful.  Then  let  him  pray  for  help,  and  go 
forward,  —  he  can  remember  better  than  he  supposes, — 
and  facility  will  rapidly  increase. 

In  familiar  conversation  with  such  a  young  brother,  one 
might  add  such  hints  as  the  following,  with  reference  to 
the  actual  preaching.  If  you  forget  what  you  meant  to 
say  next,  do  not  stop.  Nothing  is  so  awkward  as  a  dead 
pause ;  and  the  awkwardness  increases  in  geometrical  ratio 
to  the  seconds  of  time.  Say  something,  repeat,  recapitu- 
late, talk  at  random  even, — anything  rather  than  stop. 
If  you  become  embarrassed  with  a  tangled  sentence,  do  not 
turn  back,  but  burst  through.  If  you  have  made  a  mis- 
take of  grammar,  pronunciation;  or  the  like,  do  not  stop  to 
correct  it,  unless  it  is  serious.  An  occasional  inadvertence 
is  readily  pardoned,  if  the  general  style  be  good.  And  if 
you  greatly  blunder  in  style,  forget  half  your  best  thoughts, 
or  utterly  break  down,  it  will  not  kill  you.  Other  great 
men  have  failed.     Remember  young  Robert  Hall. 

Public  speaking  is  one  of  the  noblest  exercises  of  the 
human  powers ;  preaching  is  its  highest  form ;  and  if  ex- 
temporaneous speaking  be  the  best  method  of  preaching,  it 
is  surely  worth  labor  to  attain  excellence  in  this,  —  diligent 
and  faithful  self-cultivation,  resolute  determination  always 
to  do  our  best,  as  long  as  we  live. 


444      ON    DELIVERY,   AS    REGARDS    VOICE. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ON   DELIVERY,    AS   REGARDS  VOICE. 

1.  General  Remarks  on  Delivery,  g  2.  The  Voice  — Its  Dis- 
tinct Powers.  §  3.  General  Improvement  op  the  Voice. 
§  4.  Management  of  Voice  when  Actually  Speaking  —  Note 
on  Minister's  Sore -Throat. 


§  1.      GENERAL   REMARKS   ON    DELIVERY.* 

IT  can  never  be  necessary  to  urge  the  importance  of 
delivery,  upon  persons  who  correctly  understand  its 
nature,  and  who  appreciate  the  objects  of  public  speaking. 
The  famous  saying  of  Demosthenes,  repeatedly  mentioned 
by  Cicero,  is  sometimes  utterly  misrepresented.  He  did  not 
say  that  the  first  thing,  second  thing,  third  thing  in  oratory 
is  action,  in  the  English  sense  of  that  term,  but  delivery,  for 
this  is  what  the  Latin  actio  signifies.  And  delivery  does 
not  consist  merely,  or  even  chiefly,  in  vocalization  and  ges- 
ticulation, but  it  implies  that  one  is  possessed  with  the 

*  Of  the  works  mentioned  above,  Introd.  §  7,  the  most  valuable 
on  this  subject  are  those  of  Cicero  and  Quintilian,  Whately  (one- 
sided, but  instructive)  and  Monod,  Since  the  Introduction  was 
stereotyped,  two  works  on  Elocution  have  appeared.  Mcllvaine  on 
Elocution,  New  York,  1870,  is  by  far  the  best  treatise  on  the  subject 
in  existence,  containing  much  thorough  discussion  of  principle  and 
many  useful  suggestions,  with  but  little  that  is  liable  to  serious 
objection.  It  will  be  frequently  referred  to  in  this  and  the  follow- 
ing chapter.  Plumptre's  "  King's  College  Lectures  on  Elocution," 
London,  1870,  is  worth  examining,  though  ill-arranged,  and  often 
feeble.  The  two  chapters  on  Action  in  Dabney's  Sacred  Rhetoric, 
Richmond,  1870,  present  a  brief,  but  vigorous  and  useful  discussion. 


ON    DELIVERY,    AS    REGARDS    VOICE.      445 

subject,  that  he  is  completely  in  sympathy  with  it  and  fully 
aliye  to  its  importance;  that  he  is  not  repeating  remem- 
bered words,  but  bringing  forth  the  living  offspring  of  his 
mind.  Even  acting  is  good  only  in  proportion  as  the 
actor  identifies  himself  with  the  person  represented  — 
really  thinks  and  really  feels  what  he  is  saying.  In  the 
speaker  this  ought  to  be  perfect ;  he  is  not  undertaking  to 
represent  another  person,  to  appropriate  another's  thoughts 
and  feelings,  but  aims,  or  should  aim,  simply  to  be  himself, 
to  utter  what  his  own  mind  has  produced. 

Why  then  do  speakers  so  often  and  so  sadly  fail  in 
respect  to  this  chief  element  of  delivery  ?  Partly  because 
many  of  the  thoughts  they  present  are  borrowed,  and  have 
never  been  digested  by  reflection,  and  incorporated  into  the 
substance  of  their  own  thinking.  Partly  because  they  so 
frequently  say  not  what  they  really  feel,  but  what  they 
think  they  ought  to  feel,  and  are,  it  may  be  earnestly,  but 
yet  unsuccessfully,  trying  to  feel.  And  still  more  because 
they  are  uttering  the  product  of  a  former  mental  activity/ 
viz.  at  the  time  of  preparation  ;  and  even  if  the  thought 
and  feeling  were  then  perfectly  real^  and  genuine,  yet  the 
mental  states  which  produced  them  do  now  but  imperfectly 
return.  In  each  of  these  respects  it  is  seen  that  the  speaker 
is  liable  to  be  to  some  extent  an  actor ;  and  we  can  easily 
understand  how  a  gifted  and  laborious  actor  may  become 
much  more  thoroughly  possessed  with  thought  and  senti- 
ment which  are  wholly  another's,  than  a  speaker  wanting 
in  gifts  and  labor,  with  such  as  are  at  the  moment  not 
wholly  his  own.  Besides,  we  do  not  expect  of  the  actor 
perfect  success  in  this  respect,  and  we  wonder  and  admire 
that  he  sometimes  so  nearly  approaches  perfection ;  while 
of  the  speaker  we  naturally  do  expect  perfection,  and  are 
offended  that  he  obviously  comes   short   of  it.*      For  a 

*Cotnp.  above,  Part  III,  chap.  4,  on  the  diflference  between  poetry 
and  eloquence.  ^ 

88 


446      ON    DELIVERY,   AS    REGARDS    VOICE. 

speaker,  then,  and  above  all  for  a  preacher,  it  is  a  matter  of 
the  highest  importance  that  he  should  resist  the  tendency 
to  become  in  part  an  actor,  should  strive  most  earnestly  to 
say  nothing  but  what  he  now  really  thinks  and  now  truly 
feels.  It  may  sometimes  be  that  while  a  preacher  is  cha- 
grined at  having  forgotten  a  choice  expression  or  a  treas- 
ured thought,  the  omission  of  what  his  mind's  present 
activity  failed  to  produce  may  in  fact  have  been  a  gain,  for 
it  would  have  come  in  only  as  a  dead  thing,  detracting  from 
the  vitality,  and  retarding  the  movement,  of  the  discourse 
as  a  whole.  At  any  rate  it  seems  to  be  clear  that  a  preacher 
should  seek  to  form  mental  habits  quite  different  from  those 
of  an  actor.  And  while  men  who  wish  to  be  orators  are 
found  expecting  to  profit  by  taking  lessons  from  actors,  it  is 
all  the  while  true  that  the  actor  is  but  attempting  to  imitate 
the  orator.  It  is  surely  better  to  strike  at  the  heart  of  the 
matter,  and  try  to  be  the  real  thing  one  is  called  to  be,  than 
to-  copy  an  imperfect  copy — better  to  practice  ourselves  in 
saying  what  we  really  do  think  and  feel,  than  to  learn  from 
an  actor  how  to  say  what  we  do  not,  almost  as  if  we  did. 

These  views  receive  confirmation  from  the  strong  words 
of  one  who  has  rarely  been  equalled  in  his  appreciation  and 
his  mastery  of  true  art. 

««  Wagner.  I  've  often  heard  them  boast,  a  preacher 
Might  profit  with  a  player  for  his  teacher. 

Faust.  Yes,   when  the  preacher  is  a  player,  granted; 
As  often  happens  in   our  modern  ways. 

Wagner.  Ah !   when  one  with  such  love  of  study 's  haunted, 
And  scarcely  sees  the  world  on  holidays, 
And  takes  a  spy-glass,  as  it  were,  to  read  it, 
How  can  one  by  persuasion  hope  to  lead  it. 

Faust.  "What  you  don't  feel,  you '  11  never  catch  by  hunting, 
It  must  gush  out  spontaneous  from  the  soul, 
And,  with  a  fresh  delight  enchanting, 
The  hearts  of  all  that  hear  control. 


REGARDS    VOICE.      447 

Sit  there  forever!     Thaw  your  glue-pot, — 

Blow  up  your  ash-heap  to  a  flame,  and  brew, 

With   a   dull  fire,  in  your   stew-pot, 

Of  other   men's  leavings  a  ragout ! 

Children  and  apes  will  gaze   delighted. 

If  their  critiques  can  pleasure  impart ; 

But  never  a  heart  will  be  ignited, 

Comes  not  the  spark  from  the  speaker's  heart. 

Wagner.   Delivery  makes  the  orator's  success ; 
Though  I  'm  still  far  behindhand,   I  confess. 

Faust.  Seek  honest  gains,   without  pretence  I 
Be  not  a   cymbal-tinkling   fool! 
Sound   understanding   and  good   sense 
Speak  out  with    little   art   or   rule; 
And  when  you  've    something  earnest  to  utter, 
Why  hunt  for  words  in  such  a  flutter  ? 
Yes,   your   discourses,   that  are  so   refined, 
In  which  humanity's  poor  shreds  you  frizzle, 
Are  unrefreshing  as  the  mist  and  wind 
That  through  the  withered  leaves  of  autumn  whistle."  * 

A  speech,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  exists  only  in 
the  act  of  speaking.  All  that  precedes  is  preparation  for 
a  speech  ;  all  that  remains  afterwards  is  report  of  what  was 
spoken.  Whatever  may  be  necessary  for  convenience  in 
our  rhetorical  treatises,  it  is  yet  exceedingly  important  not 
to  think  of  the  speech  and  the  delivery  as  things  existing 
apart.  Whatever  be  our  method  of  preparing,  we  should 
habitually  regard  all  as  but  preparation  ;  it  must  be  cher- 
ished and  kept  alive  in  the  mind,  must  be  vitally  a  part 
of  itself,  and  then  as  living,  breathing  thought  it  will  be 
delivered. 

And  as  the  preparation  is  not  a  speech  till  it  is  spoken, 
so  the  mere  manner  of  speaking  should  not  at  the  time 
receive  separate  attention.  It  should  be  the  spontaneous 
product  of  the  speaker's  peculiar  constitution,  as  acted  on 

*  Goethe's  Faust,  tr.  by  Brookes. 


448      ON  .DELIVERY,   AS    REGARDS    VOICE; 

by  the  subject  which  now  fills  his  mind  and  heart.  The 
idea  of  becoming  eloquent  merely  by  the  study  of  voice  and 
gesture,  though  sometimes  entertained,  is  essentially  absurd. 
No  one  would  expect  to  become  agreeable  in  conversation 
by  such  means.  The  Athenians  set  a  far  greater  value  than 
we  do,  upon  what  has  been  called  "  the  statuary  and  the 
music  of  oratory."  They  listened  to  political  and  judicial 
speeches  with  much  of  the  same  critical  spirit  with  which 
we  hear  a  professional  musician  or  a  literary  lecture.  Yet 
they  were  very  far  from  giving  their  chief  attention  to  the 
mere  use  of  voice  and  gesture.  And  even  taking  delivery 
in  its  broadest  sense,  we  find  that  Demosthenes,  as  hereto- 
fore remarked,*  by  no  means  treated  delivery  as  the  great 
thing.  He  took  it  for  granted  that  an  orator  would  be 
careful  about  materials,  arrangement,  style,  and  his  ora- 
tions show  that  he  himself  was  thus  careful  in  the  very 
highest  degree.  But  delivery,  peculiarly  important  in 
Afhens,  had  been  for  him  a  peculiarly  difficult  task. 
Hence  his  striking,  hyperbolical  statement  —  delivery  is 
everything. 

The  things  requisite  to  effective  delivery  may  be  briefly 
stated  as  follows: 

Have  something  to  say  which  you  are  confident  is  worth, 
saying  ;  scarcely  anything  will  contribute  so  much  as  this 
confidence,  to  give  dignity,  directness,  ease  and  power  to 
delivery.  Have  the  treatment  well  arranged,  not  after  the 
fashion  of  an  essay,  but  with  the  orderly  and  rapid  move- 
ment proper  to  a  discourse.  Be  thoroughly  familiar  with 
all  that  you  propose  to  say,  so  that  you  may  feel  no  uneasi- 
ness ;  for  the  dread  of  failure  sadly  interrupts  the  flow  of 
thought  and  feeling.!  Think  it  all  over  within  a  short 
time  of  the  hour  for  speaking,  so  that  you  may  be  sure  of 
the  groui  d,  and  so  that  your  feelings  may  be  brought  into 

*See  above,  Introduction,  §5. 

f  Comp.  Mcllvaine  on  Elocution,  p.  120. 


ON    DELIVERY,    AS    REGARDS    VOICE.      449 

lively  sympathy  with  the  subject ;  it  is  however  best  imme- 
diately before  speaking  to  have  the  mind  free  from  active 
thought,  maintaining  only  a  quiet,  devotional  frame.  Let 
the  physical  condition  be  as  vigorous  as  possible.  In 
order  to  this  seek  good  health  in  general  ;  take  abundant 
sleep  the  night  before  speaking ;  at  the  meal  before  speak- 
ing eat  moderately,  of  food  easily  digested,  and  if  you  are 
to  speak  immediately,  eat  very  little  ;  and  do  not,  if  it  can 
possibly  be  avoided,  exhaust  your  vitality  during  the  day 
bv  exciting  conversation.  A  healthy  condition  of  the  nerv- 
ous system  is  surpassingly  important ;  not  a  morbid  excita- 
bility such  as  is  produced  by  studying  very  late  the  night 
before,  but  a  healthy  condition,  so  that  feeling  may  quickly 
respond  to  thought,  so  that  there  may  be  sympathetic 
emotion,  and  at  the  same  time  complete  self-control.* 

Above  all,  be  yourself.  Speak  out  with  freedom  and 
earnestness  what  you  think  and  feel.  Better  a  thousand 
faults,  than  through  dread  of  faults  to  be  tame.  Some  of 
the  most  useful  preachers,  men  in  a  true  and  high  sense 
eloquent,  have  had  grave  defects  of  manner.  Habitually 
correct  faults  as  far  as  possible,  but  whether  the  voice  and 
the  action  be  good  or  bad,  if  there  is  something  in  you  to 
say,  speak  it  out.  And  by  all  means  let  there  be  no  affec- 
tation, or  even  artificiality.f 

*'In  man  or  woman,  but  far  most  iu  man, 
And  most  of  all  in  man  that  ministers 
And  serves  the  altar,  in  my  soul  I  loathe 
All  afifectation.     'Tis  my  perfect  scorn; 
Object  of  my  implacable  disgust. 
What !  will  a  man  play  tricks,  will  he  indulge 
A  silly  fond  conceit  of  his  fair  form 
And  just  proportion,  fashionable  mien, 
And  pretty  face,  in  presence  of  his  God  ? 

*Comp.  Mcllvaine,  p.  103  flF.,  165  ff.  ;   Monod,  p.  399  f, 
f  Comp.  above,  Introd.  §5. 
38* 


450      ON    DELIVERY,   AS    REGARDS    VOICE. 

Or  will  he  seek  to  dazzle  me  with  tropes 
As  with  the  diamond  on  his  lily  hand, 
And  play  his  brilliant  parts  before  my  eyes 
When  I  am  hungry  for  the  bread  of  life  ? 
He  mocks  his  Maker,  prostitutes  and  shames 
His  noble  office,  and,  instead  of  truth, 
Displaying  his  own  beauty,   starves  his  flock ! 
Therefore,   avaunt  all  attitude,   and   stare, 
And  start  theatric,   practiced  at  the  glass !  "  * 


§2.      THE   VOICE  —  ITS   DISTINCT   POWERS. 

The  voice  is  the  speaker's  great  instrument.  Nothing 
else  in  a  man's  physical  constitution  is  nearly  so  import- 
ant. "For  an  effective  and  admirable  delivery,"  says 
Cicero, "  the  voice,  beyond  doubt,  holds  the  highest  place."  f 
Not  every  eminent  orator  has  possessed  a  commanding  per- 
son, but  every  one  of  great  eminence  has  had  an  effective 
voice.  The  faults  which  come  from  natural  organization, 
such  as  drawling,  fineness,  feebleness,  defective  articulation, 
may  often  be  partially  remedied  by  judicious  and  patient 
effort ;  witness  Demosthenes.  And  a  voice  extremely  faulty 
in  some  respects,  may  yet  in  other  respects  have  great 
power,  and  be  precisely  suited  to  the  mental  character  of 
the  man  ;  witness  John  Eandolph.  It  is  said  of  Burke  that 
"  his  voice,  which  he  never  attempted  to  discipline,  was 
harsh  when  he  was  calm,  and  when  he  was  excited  he  often 
became  so  hoarse  as  to  be  hardly  intelligible."  This,  along 
with  the  essay-style  of  his  otherwise  magnificent  speeches, 
will  account  for  the  fact  that  he  was  commonly  listened  to 
with  weariness ;  yet  on  some  occasions,  when  expressing 
certain  varieties  of  thought  and  feeling,  his  delivery  was 
very  forcible.^  Robert  Hall  had  a  comparatively  weak 
voice ;  but  he  gave  it  effect  by  rapidity  of  utterance,  and 

♦Cowper.  fDeOr.  Ill,  60. 

X  See  Bulwer  on  Style,  in  Caxtoniana, 


ON    DELIVERY,    AS    REGARDS    VOICE.       451 

when  he  was  excited  it  would  swell  into  power.  The  vocal 
gifts  of  Chrysostom,  Whitfield,  Spurgeon,  are  well  known. 
From  all  this  it  appears  that  while  one  cannot  be  an  orator 
of  the  highest  class  without  unusual  powers  of  voice,  he  may- 
yet  be  a  highly  effective  speaker  notwithstanding  grave 
defects ;  so  that  every  one  should  be  encouraged  to  make 
the  best  of  such  vocal  powers  as  he  possesses. 

A  minute  acquaintance  with  the  anatomy  and  physiol- 
ogy of  the  organs  of  speech  is  not  necessary  to  the  ora- 
tor. Even  a  general  knowledge  of  them  is  more  useful  in 
the  way  of  avoiding  disease  than  of  positively  improving 
delivery.* 

But  there  are  certain  powers  of  voice  which,  with  refer- 
ence to  public  speaking,  it  is  important  to  distinguish. 

(1.)  Compass,  the  range  of  pitch  over  which  the  voice 
extends.  The  difference  between  voices  in  this  respect  is 
very  obvious  in  the  case  of  singers,  but  it  is  not  less  real  in 
speaking,  and  is  a  matter  of  great  consequence  in  express- 
ing the  immense  variety  of  sentiments  which  a  speaker  will 
feel,  even  in  the  progress  of  the  same  discourse. 

(2.)  Volume,  the  quantity  of  sound  produced,  is  entirely 
distinct  from  pitch,  though  frequently  confounded  with 
it  in  the  popular  use  of  such  terms  as  loud  and  strong. 
Ample  volume,  properly  regulated,  will  render  the  voice 
audible  to  a  greater  distance,  and  will  make  it  more  com- 
manding. 

(3.)  Penetrating  power.  The  distance  to  which  one  can 
be  heard,  does  not  depend  simply  on  volume  and  pitch,  nor 
on  distinct  articulation;  there  is  a  difference  between  voices 
as /to  their  power  of  penetration.  A  similar  difference 
exists  in  the  case  of  many  other  sounds,  natural  and  arti- 
ficial. The  philosophy  of  it  has  not  been  satisfactorily 
explained,  and  the  fact  is  scarcely  noticed  in  treatises  on 

*  A  good  and  sufficient  account  of  these  organs  is  given  by 
Mcllvaine,  p.  183-98. 


452      ON    DELIVERY,    AS    REGARDS    VOICE. 


elocution,  but  a  very  little  observation  will  convince  one 
that  the  difference  is  real.  Indeed,  penetrating  power  is 
sometimes  clearly  hereditary,*  which  proves  that  it  is  a 
natural  property  of  voice. 

(4.)  Melody.  This  depends  on  both  sweetness  and  flex- 
ibility of  voice.  The  single  sounds  must  be  sweet,  and 
the  constant  transitions  in  pitch,  required  by  variations  of 
sentiment,  must  be  made  wdth  promptness,  precision  and 
smoothness.  A  voice  is  not  melodious  if  in  either  respect 
deficient. 

§  3.      GENERAL   IMPROVEMENT   OF   VOICE. 

Cicero  tells  us  that  Caius  Gracchus,  when  speaking,  kept 
a  servant  near  him  and  out  of  sight,  having  a  flute,  the  note 
of  which  would  now  and  then  bring  up  the  orator's  voice  when 
flagging,  or  recall  it  when  overstrained ;  and  he  judiciously 
adds  that  it  were  better  to  leave  the  flute-player  at  home, 
and  carry  to  the  forum  the  habit  acquired.f  This  holds 
good  as  to  all  vocal  improvement,  in  fact  as  to  all  that 
pertains  to  delivery.  We  must  seek  by  general  exercise 
and"  care  to  form  such  habits,  of  speech  and  of  bearing, 
that  there  may  be  little  need  to  give  them  attention  when 
actually  engaged  in  public  speaking. 

Whatever  improves  the  general  health  will  improve  the 
voice,  especially  muscular  exercise,  and  particularly  such  as 
develops  the  chest,  and  promotes  an  easy  erectness  of  posi- 
tion. Singing  cultivates  the  voice  in  almost  every  respect, 
and  probably  to  a  greater  extent  than  anything  else  except 
actual  speaking.  It  is  on  many  other  accounts  also  very 
desirable  that  a  minister  should  be  able  to  sing,  and  to  sing 
by  note  ;  and  young  ministers,  and  those  preparing  for  the 
ministry,  should  take  much  pains  to  learn  to  sing.     If  it 

*  The  author  is  familiar  with  a  manifest  instance, 
t  De  Or.  Ill,  60  f. 


ON    DELIVEPwY,   AS    REGARDS    VOICE.      453 

should  require  as  mucli  time  and  effort  to  gain  the  power 
of  singing  church  music  at  sight  as  to  learn  a  modern  lan- 
guage or  a  branch  of  science,  it  would  be  fully  as  profitable ; 
and  almost  any  man  who  is  still  young  can  learn  to  sing 
moderately  well,  by  judicious  and  persevering  effort.    Bead- 
ing aloud  is  also  of  good  service  in  cultivating  the  voice. 
It  is,  however,  more  laborious  than  speaking,  and  should 
be  promptly  suspended  when  it  becomes  decidedly  fatiguing. 
A  proper  management  of  the  voice  in  all  ordinary  conver- 
sation, is  a  matter  of  the  very  highest  importance.     As  in 
politeness,  and  as  in  style,  so  in  the  use  of  the  voice  (and 
also  in   action),  it  is  impossible  for  one  to  do   really  well 
on  special  occasions  who  is  habitually  careless  and  slovenly. 
We  have  already  urged  this  as  regards  style,  and  extem- 
poraneous preaching,  but  it  deserves  to  be  repeated  and 
reiterated.     Take  care  that  your  utterance  in  conversation 
shall  always  be  audible,  agreeable,  and  at  the  same  time 
easy  and  natural ;  and  then  in  public  speaking  your  utter- 
ance will  almost  take  care  of  itself.     Vocal  exercises  may 
be  quite  useful  for  certain  purposes  and  to  some  extent. 
If  excessive,  or  of  an  improper  character,  they  may  seri- 
ously injure  the  organs  ;  and  there  is  still  greater  danger 
that  they  will  produce  artificiality.     When  conducted  in 
private,  under  the  direction  of  a  really  judicious  teacher 
of  elocution,  they  might  be  of  great  service  in  correcting 
special  faults ;  but  teachers  of  elocution,  the  most  intelli- 
gent, appear  singularly  prone  to  attempt  too  much,  to  be 
dissatisfied  with  the  humble  task  of  correcting  faults,  and 
undertake  to  superinduce  some  positive,  and  of  necessity 
artificial  excellence.     After  aW,  practice  in  actual  speaking 
is,  next  to  care  in   conversation,  the  main  thing.     But  it 
must  be  heedful  practice,  with  observation  of  the  faults 
developed,  and  efibrt  afterwards  to  avoid  them,  or  it  will 
but  confirm  and  render  incurable  one's  natural  or  acci- 


464      ON    DELIVERY,  AS    REGARDS    VOICE. 

dental  defects.  Some  one  has  said :  "  Practice  makes  per* 
feet ;  and  bad  practice  makes  perfectly  bad." 

Care  must  constantly  be  taken  not  to  destroy  individu- 
ality of  voice.  A  man's  voice  is  a  part  of  himself,  a  part 
of  his  power ;  he  must  keep  it  essentially  unaltered,  while 
improved  as  far  as  possible. 

A  few  points  may  be  noticed,  as  to  the  means  of  improv- 
ing particular  powers  of  voice. 

(].)  Compass  will  be  improved  by  nothing  so  much  as 
by  singing.  Something  may  be  gained  by  taking  a  short 
sentence,  and  repeating  it  (in  the  open  air)  on  a  key  suc- 
cessively elevated  or  lowered,  to  the  full  limit  of  our  range 
of  voice;  taking  care  that  the  utterance  shall  at  every 
pitch  be  speaking,  and  not  become  half  singing.  In  such 
exercises  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  on  a  low  key  it 
is  best  to  speak  slowly,  and  swiftly  on  a  high  key.  The 
difference  is  clearly  seen  in  comparing  the  lower  and  upper 
tones  of  a  piano  or  violin,  and  the  human  voice  is  also  a 
stringed  instrument.  In  actual  speaking,  nature  at  once 
prompts  the  swifter  or  slower  utterance,  if  only  we  let 
nature  have  liberty. 

(2.)  As  to  volume,  we  gain  mainly  by  such  habitual 
carriage  and  such  physical  exercise  as  may  expand  and 
strengthen  the  lungs.  Riding  horseback,  cutting  wood, 
and  in  a  remarkable  degree  certain  gymnastical  exercises, 
will  have  this  effect,  as  soon  appears  from  increased  breadth 
of  chest.  Taking  a  series  of  long  breaths,  every  morning 
before  breakfast,  or  at  any  time  of  day  when  the  stomach 
is  not  full,  will  act  upon  the  lungs,  and  if  regularly  prac- 
tised, accomplish  much  more  than  might  be  supposed.  The 
habit  of  talking  with  the  mouth  well  opened,  so  as  to  give 
full  and  free  utterance  (of  course  without  mouthing),  is 
here  quite  important.  Occasional  loud  singing  (not  on  a 
high  pitch)  will  be  of  service,  and  actual  speaking,  unless 


ON    DELIVERY,    AS    REGARDS    VOICE.       455 

very  badly  managed,  will  steadily  augment  the  volume  of 
one's  voice,  through  all  his  earlier  years. 

(3.)  Penetrating  power  may  be  increased  by  giving  the 
matter  distinct  attention,  in  vocal  exercises,  and  sometimes 
in  speaking.  The  effort  should  be  to  project  the  voice,  to 
make  it  reach  farther,  without  elevating  the  pitch  or 
increasing  the  quantity  of  sound.  By  calling  to  a  friend 
on  an  opposite  hill,  or  by  fixing  the  eye  on  a  distant  person 
in  a  large  audience  and  endeavoring  to  make  him  hear,  we 
naturally  develop  this  power;  but  great  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  substitute  an  alteration  of  pitch  or  tone.  It  is  found 
by  physical  experiments  of  different  kinds,  that  pure  tones, 
those  not  mixed  with  irregular  noises,  tones  full,  clear, 
steady,*  are  heard  at  a  greater  distance  than  others ;  and 
this  is  even  a  more  important  reason  for  cultivating  purity 
of  tone  than  its  effect  in  the  way  of  melody. 

Purity  of  tone  applies  chiefly  to  the  utterance  of  vowel 
sounds.  But  penetrating  power  of  voice  is  also  greatly 
assisted  by  the  distinct  articulation  of  consonants.  Nothing 
is  more  common  than  in  approaching  a  speaker  to  hear 
sound,  even  loud  sound,  before  we  hear  words.  This  is 
chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  speaker  swells  his  vowel 
sounds,  but  does  not  bring  out  the  consonants.  Yet  it  is 
mainly  these  that  determine  the  word,  in  speech  as  well  as 
in  stenography. 

Now  as  to  distinctness  of  articulation,  great  faults  are 
very  common,  and  there  is  ample  room  for  cultivation,  by 
simple  means.  In  conversation,  reading,  speaking,  espe- 
cially in  singing,  (because  there  it  is  most  difficult,)  let 
pains  be  constantly  taken  to  articulate  every  letter  accord- 
ing to  its  true  sound,  and  particularly  every  consonant. 
Special  exercises  may  be  used,  containing  consonants  often 
neglected,  such  as  the  strong  r  and  the  nasal  sound  of  ing; 
or  difficult  combinations  of  two  or  three  consonants,  as 

*  Comp.  Mcllvaine,  p.  296. 


456       ON    DELIVERY,   AS    REGARDS    VOICE. 

shrink,  expects,  fifth  and  sixth  verses.  It  is  on  various 
accounts  important  that  preachers  should  learn  to  utter 
with  ease  the  forms  of  the  second  person  singular  of  verbs, 
such  as  wouldst,  blessedst,  etc.,  which  constaptly  occur  in 
prayer,  and  sometimes  in  exhortation.  Where  a  consonant, 
or  combination  of  consonants,  ends  one  word  and  begins 
the  next,  there  is  often  special  difficulty.  E.  g.  "take 
care,"  "  sit  down."  Not  one  in  five  of  educated  ministers 
will  correctly  articulate  the  words,  "  In  the  evening  it  is 
cut  down  and  withereth."  An  excellent  example  is  the 
saying,  "  It  is  the  first  step  that  costs."  * 

Distinctness  of  articulation  is  everywhere  much  neglected 
by  the  masses  of  men  ;  it  is  especially  so  in  this  country, 
and  particularly  at  the  South.  American  English  is  feebler 
in  sound  than  the  language  in  England ;  and  at  the  South 
there  is  already  to  some  extent  seen  the  general  tendency 
of  people  living  in  a  warm  climate,  to  prolong  and  make 
musical  the  vowel  sounds,  but  to  drop,  alter,  or  slur  over 
the  strong  combinations  of  consonants.  This  is  a  grave 
fault  in  public  speaking.  Italian  is  admirable  for  music, 
but  for  oratory,  genuine  English  is  far  better.  At  the 
same  time,  let  us  beware  of  extremes.  The  rolling  Eng- 
lish r,  for  instance,  is  contrary  to  the  established  usage  of 
America,  and  should  not  be  imitated.  And  in  general,  we 
must  not  show  an  effort  at  distinctness ;  even  mumbling  is 
hardly  so  bad  as  this.  A  man  need  not  speak  —  a  German 
writer  suggests  —  like  one  who  is  teaching  the  deaf  and 
dumb  to  talk.  When  one  who  grew  up  with  careless 
habits  as  to  articulation  first  attempts  to  correct  them,  he 
will  for  a  while  betray  the  eflbrt ;  but  this  can  be  soon 
overcome,  by  practicing  exercises  in  private,  and  especially 
by  care  in  conversation. 

*  Useful  collections  of  examples  for  this  purpose  may  be  found 
in  the  highest  School  Readers,  and  in  some  works  on  elocution. 
Mcllvaine  has  good  remarks  on  articulation,  p.  218-26,  and  a  long 
and  instructive  chapter  on  pronunciation,  p.  239-93. 


ON    DELIVERY,   AS    KEGARDS    VOICE.       457 

He  who  wishes  to  be  heard  at  a  great  distaL^e,  must 
speak  rather  slowly.  There  is  thus  a  clear  interval  between 
the  sound-waves,  and  even  when  they  have  come  a  long 
way  and  are  growing  faint,  they  will  still  be  distinct. 

This  penetrating  power  of  voice,  with  the  distinct  articu- 
lation which  aids  it,  is  believed  to  deserve  the  special  atten- 
tion of  all  public  speakers. 

(4.)  As  regards  melody,  we  have  seen  that  it  depends  on 
sweetness  and  flexibility  of  voice.  The  former  is  chiefly  a 
natural  quality,  but  it  may  be  improved  by  singing ;  also 
in  conversation  by  attention  to  purity  of  tone,  avoiding 
huskiness,  and  all  mingling  of  mere  noise  with  the  vocal 
utterance ;  and  in  general,  by  keeping  the  organs  of  speech 
in  a  healthy  condition.  The  vowel  sounds  are  here  most 
important,  the  prolongation  of  these  making  the  sweet 
tones.  The  consonants,  while  distinctly  articulated  for 
other  purposes,  must  in  order  to  melody  be  uttered  with 
smoothness  and  ease.  There  is  a  marked  tendency  in  this 
country,  particularly  at  the  North,  to  omit  or  disguise  many 
unaccented  vowel  sounds,  thereby  greatly  impairing  the 
melody  of  the  words,  and  sometimes  making  them  indis- 
tinct. Take,  for  example,  the  shortened  utterance  we  so 
often  hear,  of  absolute,  tolerable,  immensity.^  This  tend- 
ency ought  to  be  studiously  avoided  by  all  who  desire  to 
speak  agreeably,  and  should  be  resisted  and  corrected  by 
all  who  wish  well  to  our  language.  But  not  a  few  preachers 
go  to  the  opposite  extreme,  and  exhibit  an  aflfected  preci- 
sion. Thus  in  difficult  the  vowel  of  the  second  syllable 
should  have  its  proper  sound  (though  vulgarly  sounded  like 
short  u),  but  in  audible,  sensible,  this  would  be  an  affecta- 
tion, for  the  disguised  sound  is  established  by  the  best  usage. 

Flexibility  is  necessary  for  the  exact  expression  of  vary- 
ing sentiment,  as  well  as  for  melody.  It  will  improve  by 
practice,  if  one  speaks  with  earnest  feeling,  and  it  may  be 

*Comp.  Dabney's  Sac.  Rhet.  p.  306. 
89 


458      ON    DELIVERY,    AS     REGAJRiJS    VOICE. 

cultivated  by  any  exercises  itivolving  quick  transitions 
from  one  pitch  to  a  much  higher  or  lower  one.  "  Probably 
the  best  exercise  is  that  of  reading  aloud  ....  dialogues. 
in  which  the  reader  represents  alternately  a  number  of 
interlocutors.  The  animation  which  is  characteristic  of 
this  species  of  discourse,  and  the  frequent  and  rapid  changes 
of  the  voice  which  are  requisite  to  maintain  the  distinction 
of  persons  and  characters,  afford  the  most  effective  aids  to 
the  development  of  this  power.  Humorous  selections  also 
are  good  for  this  purpose."  '*' 

Melody  is  exceedingly  desirable,  but  without  possessing 
it  in  a  high  degree  a  speaker's  voice  may  be,  on  other 
accounts,  very  effective.  And  it  is  a  grave  fault  to  play 
tunes  on  the  voice,  to  give  a  sort  of  musical  accompani- 
ment, distinct  from  the  sentiments  uttered,  as  appears  to 
be  quite  common  in  England,  and  is  sometimes  seen  in 
America,  in  the  pulpit-tone  of  even  educated  men. 

§4.      MANAGEMENT    OF    VOICE   WHEN   ACTUALLY 
PREACHING. 

A  few  simple  hints  may  be  profitably  borne  in  mind.  - 
(1.)  Do  not  begin  on  too  high  a  key.  One  is  particu- 
larly apt  to  do  this  in  the  open  air,  or  in  a  large  and  unfa- 
miliar church,  or  when  much  excited.  It  is  wonderful  how 
difficult  a  speaker  finds  it  to  lower  the  main  key  on  which 
he  has  once  fairly  started.  He  may  become  aware  of  it 
in  three  minutes,  and  make  repeated  efforts  to  correct  the 
mistake,  but  in  most  cases  he  will  fail ;  and  when  impas- 
sioned passages  come,  in  which  the  voice  must  rise,  it  will 
rise  to  a  scream.  Every  one  has  often  witnessed  this  pro- 
cess.    It  is  of  course  not  impossible  to  change  the  key,  and 

"■Mcllvaine,  p.  320.  His  chapters  on  the  qualities  and  powers  of 
the  voice,  and  their  improvement,  p.  294-320,  contain  a  good  deal 
that  is  useful. 


ON    DELIVERY,    AS    REGARDS:     VOICE.      459 

this  should  be  carefully  attempted  when  necessary.  But 
the  great  matter  is  to  avoid  beginning  wrong.  Tenor 
voices,  it  is  obvious,  are  especially  apt  to  begin  toe  high. 
If  one  becomes  impassioned  in  the  early  part  of  the  dis- 
course, he  ought  not  then  to  let  out  his  voice  in  its  full 
force,  but  reserve  its  highest  power  for  some  later  and 
culminating  point,  as  is  done  with  the  more  powerful  in- 
struments in  an  oratorio.*  In  fact,  the  voice  should  very 
rarely  go  to  its  highest  pitch,  or  to  its  fullest  volume ; 
there  ought  always  to  be  a  reserve  force,  unless  it  be  in 
some  moment  of  the  most  exalted  passion.  Long  pas- 
sages of  bawling,  relieved  only  by  occasional  bursts  into 
a  harrowing  scream,  are  in  every  sense  hurtful  to  all  con- 
cerned. 

It  was  speaking  long  on  a  high  key  in  the  open  air,  with 
unrestrained  passion,  that  led  many  of  the  early  Baptist 
preachers  of  this  country  into  that  sing-song,  or  "holy 
whine,"  which  is  still  heard  in  some  parts  of  the  country. 
The  voice,  strained  and  fatigued,  instinctively  sought  relief 
in  a  rhythmical  rise  and  fall,  as  is  also  the  case  in  the  loud 
cries  of  street  peddlers.  They  were  commonly  zealous,  and 
sometimes  great  men  who  fell  into  this  fault,  and  it  was 
often  imitated  by  those  who  came  after  them,  after  the 
usual  superficial  fashion  of  imitators,  mistaking  the  obvious 
fault  for  the  hidden  power.  To  some  of  the  ignorant  peo- 
ple, this  peculiar  whine  is  connected  by  a  life-long  associa- 
tion with  the  most  impressive  truths  and  the  most  solemn 
occasions ;  and  so  it  touches  their  feelings,  independently 
of  what  is  said,  and  sometimes  when  the  preacher's  words 
are  not  heard — like  the  revival  tunes,  or  those  familiar  to 
us  from  childhood. 

We  must  not  begin  on  a  high  key,  and  yet  the  text 
should  be  distinctly  heard.  The  difhculty  thus  arising 
when  the  audience  is  large,  may  be  overcome  by  stating 
*  Palmer,  Homiletik,  s.  538. 


460      ON    DELl^^ERY^    A.S    REQIRDS    VOICE. 

the  text  slowly,  distinctly,  and  if  necessary,  a  second  tin.e; 
and  by  projecting  the  voice,  instead  of  elevating  it. 

(2.)  Do  not  suffer  the  voice  to  drop  in  the  last  words  of 
a  sentence.  Though  it  must  often  sink,  returning  to  the 
general  pitch  of  the  discourse,  yet  it  must  not  fall  too  sud- 
denly, nor  too  low.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  the  last  words 
to  be  quite  inaudible. 

(3.)  Never  fail  to  take  breath  before  the  lungs  are 
entirely  exhausted ;  and  usually  keep  them  well  filled. 
This  will  generally  be  done  without  efibrt  in  extempora- 
neous speaking ;  but  in  recitation  and  reading  it  requires 
special  attention.  Monod  says :  "  For  this  purpose,  it  is 
necessary  to  breathe  quite  often,  and  to  take  advantage  of 
little  rests  in  the  delivery."  *  A  speaker  must  not  gasp  in 
his  breath  through  the  mouth,  but  breathe  through  the  nos- 
trils, regularly  and  steadily.  He  must  keep  the  head  and 
neck  in  an  upright  posture,  for  the  sake  of  breathing  freely, 
as  well  as  for  other  reasons ;  and  there  must  be  nothing 
tight  around  his  throat. 

(4.)  Look  frequently  at  the  remotest  hearers,  and  see  to 
it  that  they  hear  you.  If  particular  persons  anywhere  in 
the  room  have  grown  inattentive,  they  may  often  be  aroused 
by  quietly  aiming  the  voice  at  them  for  a  moment. 

(5.)  Let  there  be  variety  ;  of  pitch,  of  force,  and  of 
speed.f  Monotony  is  utterly  destructive  of  eloquence. 
But  variety  of  utterance  must  be  gained,  not  by  assuming 
it  from  wdthout,  but  by  taking  care  to  have  a  real  and 
marked  variety  of  sentiment,  and  then  simply  uttering  each 
particular  sentiment  in  the  most  natural  manner.  % 

For  the  rest,  let  rules  alone,  and  think  not  about  your 

*  On  the  Delivery  of  Sermons,  p.  402. 

fSee  Mcllvaine,  on  Time  and  Pause,  p.  346  ff. 

J  Emphasis  requires  much  attention  in  reading,  and  will  be  dis- 
cussed below  in  Part  V.  In  speaking,  a  correct  emphasis  will  be 
spontaneous,  whenever  one  is  fully  in  sympathy  with  his  subject. 


ON    DELIVERY,    AS    REGAKDB    VOICE.      461 

voice,  but  your  subject,  and  those  on  whom  yoi  wish  to 
impress  it.  Except  that  when  some  marked  fault  has 
attracted  attention,  or  been  pointed  out  by  a  friend,  care 
must  be  taken  to  avoid  it  hereafter. 

Note  on  Minister's  Soee-theoat. 

There  is  a  peculiar  disease,  produced  by  excessive  or  ill-managed 
use  of  the  organs  of  speech,  which  occurs  so  much  oftener  with 
preachers  than  with  other  public  speakers  or  with  singers,  that  it 
is  commonly  called  clergyman's  or  minister's  sore-throat.  It  is  by 
no  means  confined  to  them,  being  found  in  lawyers,  professors, 
public  singers,  and  private  persons.  A  statement  of  the  principal 
causes  which  produce  the  disease  will  perhaps  explain  why  it  is 
more  common  with  ministers. 

It  is  desirable  first  to  explain  briefly  the  nature  of  this  disease. 
The  windpipe,  upon  leaving  the  throat,  divides  into  two  branches, 
one  for  each  lung,  and  each  of  these  branches  subdivides  into  sev- 
eral small  tubes,  called  bronchial  tubes.  A  disease  which  consumes 
the  substance  of  the  lung  itself  is  called  consumption  ;  an  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  bronchial  tubes  is  called  bron- 
chitis. The  disease  we  are  at  present  considering  is  laryngitis, 
an  inflammation  of  the  larynx,  just  at  the  upper  end  of  the  wind- 
pipe, where  it  opens  into  the  mouth.  The  ulcers  it  often  forms 
can  be  seen  by  another  person  with  the  unaided  eye,  by  pressing 
down  the  tongue  with  a  spoon.  It  is  obviously  a  far  less  serious 
disease  than  bronchitis,  and  is  perhaps  never  fatal,  except  when  it 
passes  into  bronchitis. 

The  causes  of  this  laryngitis  are  apparently  several,  (1.)  Feeble 
health  in  general,  especially  of  the  alimentary  system.  This  is  apt 
to  take  eff"ect  upon  that  part  of  the  body  which  is  most  severely 
exercised;  as  in  a  silversmith,  upon  the  eyes,  in  a  speaker,  upon 
the  throat,  &c.  Now  ministers  are  particularly  subject  to  feeble- 
ness in  the  alimentary  organs,  because  their  life  is  anxious  and  apt 
to  be  too  sedentary,  and  because  they  are  often  tempted  to  eat  too 
freely.  (2.)  Speaking  much  when  under  the  influence  of  depressing 
emotions.  These  naturally  cause  the  throat  to  contract,*  and  ren- 
der speaking  more  fatiguing  ;  whereas  exciting  emotions,  such  as 
anger  or  joy,  will  expand  the  throat.     It  is  obvious  that  ministers 

*  Compare  the  etymology  of  the  word  anxious. 
39* 


462      ON    DELIVERY,    AS    REGARDS    VOICE. 

are  peculiarly  exposed  to  such  depressing  feelings  while  they  speak. 
(3.)  Speaking  when  hoarse.  Preachers,  having  fixed  and  very  fre 
quent  occasions  for  speaking,  are  more  likely  than  even  lawyers  to 
think  themselves  bound  to  speak  when  hoarse.  (4.)  Singing,  when 
the  organs  are  fatigued.  Those  who  suffer  from  laryngitis  usually 
find  singing  much  more  injurious  than  speaking,  and  this  shows  it 
to  be  particularly  trying  to  the  larynx.  Now  ministers  very  often 
sing  when  greatly  fatigued  by  a  long  and  impassioned  sermon  — 
and  there  is  no  corresponding  experience  in  the  case  of  others. 
(5.)  Speaking  from  an  elevated  stand,  looking  down  upon  the  hearers, 
causes  a  bending  and  contraction  of  the  vocal  tube  just  at  the  point 
where  this  disease  arises.  High  pulpits  are  not  now  universal,  as 
they  once  were,  but  are  still  unhappily  common,  though  for  other 
reasons  also  objectionable.  Besides,  in  some  parts  of  the  country 
it  is  usual  for  one  who  \s  praying,  to  stand  with  upturned  face,  which 
throwing  the  head  back,  produces  a  like  constriction  of  the  larynx; 
and  various  cases  of  laryngitis  are  said  to  have  been  promptly 
relieved  by  ceasing  to  adopt  this  very  unnecessary  posture. 
(6.)  Reading  is  much  more  injurious  to  these  organs  than  speaking. 
This  also  is  conclusively  shown  by  the  experience  of  persons  suffer- 
ing from  laryngitis,  and  the  reasons  for  it  can  be  easily  perceived. 
The  fact  is  noticed  by  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England  :  *'  The 
song-note  and  speech-note  are  essentially  different,  yet  each  may 
be  produced  in  their  respective  work  of  singing  and  speaking  for 
several  hours  daily  without  injury  to  the  throat.  It  is  only  the 
speech-note  as  produced  for  reading,  that  induces  this  condition."* 
Public  reading  instead  of  speaking  is,  it  is  well  known,  very  rarely 
practiced  by  any  other  persons  than  ministers. 

It  thus  appears  that  several  causes  conspire  to  render  preachers 
more  liable  to  this  disease  than  others,  but  that  most  of  the  causes 
can  be  removed,  or  counteracted.  The  symptom  which  especially 
demands  care,  is  a  feeling  of  great  fatigue  and  feebleness  in  the 
organs,  so  that  speaking,  while  not  yet  painful,  seems  burdensome 
and  laborious.  At  any  time,  and  particularly  when  the  general 
health  is  feeble,  this  symptom  imperatively  calls  for  rest.  One 
should  for  a  while  refrain  from  preaching,  as  far  as  practicable, 
and  from  singing,  and  protracted  and  excited  conversation ;  and 
should  carefully  avoid  taking  cold,  for  this  will  almost  certainly 

*  Cull,  Lecture  on  Reading  Aloud,  quoted  in  Plumptre  on  Elocution, 
p.  199. 


ON    DELIVERY,   AS    REGARDS    VOICE.      463 

produce  ulcers.  It  is  highly  injurious  in  such  a  case  to  stimulate 
the  jaded  organs  by  means  of  ginger,  pepper,  etc.,  in  order  to  strain 
them  a  little  longer.  Let  it  be  observed  that  an  ordinary  hoarse- 
ness, or  sore-throat,  without  the  tired  and  enfeebled  feeling  just 
mentioned,  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  disease  in  question. 

If  laryngitis  has  actually  occurred,  it  is  certainly  a  serious 
calamity,  but  by  no  means  hopeless.  The  disease  is  often  cured, 
wholly  or  in  great  part,  and  men  who  continue  subject  to  it,  are 
not  unfrequently  able,  by  proper  care,  to  do  much  preaching. 
The  chief  remedies  are  temporary  rest  and  especially  improvement 
of  the  general  health.  Horseback  exercise,  travel,  or  some  active 
and  enlivening  employment,  with  increased  attention  to  the  ordi- 
nary conditions  of  health,  will  often  work  a  cure  in  a  few  weeks. 
If  ulcers  are  formed,  and  the  physician  proposes  cauterizing,  let  it 
be  done  without  hesitation  ;  the  dread  of  it  commonly  felt  is  with- 
out cause.  After  a  few  weeks  of  rest,  if  there  has  been  partial 
though  not  entire  recovery,  and  especially  if  the  general  health 
has  improved,  it  is  best  to  resume  preaching  to  some  extent.  To 
find  oneself  able  to  do  this,  even  with  some  difficulty,  will  promote 
cheerfulness.  And  moderate  exercise  of  the  organs  of  speech  is 
beneficial  to  them,  precisely  as  with  other  organs.  Even  consump- 
tives frequently  derive  unquestionable  benefit  from  singing  or 
speaking. 

It  is  very  apt  to  injure  even  a  healthy  voice,  if  it  be  much 
strained  in  very  cold  or  very  hot  air.  "When  one  has  grown  quite 
warm  in  preaching,  and  goes  out  into  cold  air,  it  is  extremely 
important  to  guard  against  taking  cold,  not  so  much  by  wrapping 
the  throat  as  by  protecting  the  whole  body.  Neglect  of  this  often 
produces  worse  diseases  than  laryngitis. 


464      ON    DELIVERY,    AS     REGARDS     ACTION. 


CHAPTER    III. 

ON   DELIVERY,    AS    REGARDS   ACTION.* 

THE  term  action  is  now  commonly  restricted  to  what 
Cicero  calls  the  sermo  corporis,  or  speech  of  the  body, 
including  expression  of  countenance,  posture  and  gesture, 
but  not  including  the  use  of  the  voice. 

The  freedom  and  variety  of  action  exhibited  by  children 
when  talking  to  each  other,  shows  that  it  is  perfectly 
natural.  Its  wonderful  expressiveness,  even  apart  from 
language,  is  sometimes  displayed  by  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
and  by  others  skilled  in  pantomime.  There  is  a  familiar 
fitory  of  a  dispute  between  Cicero  and  Roscius,  an  actor 
famous  for  pantomime,  as  to  which  could  express  a  thought 
more  eloquently,  the  one  by  words,  or  the  other  by  signs. 
In  many  cases  a  gesture  is  much  more  expressive  than  any 
number  of  words.  "  How  truly  language  must  be  regarded 
as  a  hindrance  to  thought,  though  the  necessary  instrument 
of  it,  we  shall  clearly  perceive  on  remembering  the  com- 
parative force  with  which  simple  ideas  are  communicated 
by  signs.  To  say,  *  Leave  the  room,'  is  less  expressive 
than  to  point  to  the  door.  Placing  a  finger  on  the  lips  is 
more  forcible  than  whispering,  'Do  not  speak.'  A  beck 
of  the  hand  is  better  than  *  Come  here.'  No  phrase  can 
convey  the  idea  of  surprise  so  vividly  as  opening  the  eyes 
and  raising  the  eyebrows.     A  shrug  of  the  shoulders  would 

*  On  this  subject  profitable  use  has  been  made  of  the  notes  of 
lectures  by  the  authors  esteemed  colleague,  Rev.  B.  Manly,  Jr., 
D.  D.  Among  the  treatises,  Russell  is  here  best,  Pulpit  Elocution, 
p.  346-68. 


ON    DELIVERY,    aS    REGARDS    ACTION.      465 

lose  much  by  translation  into  words."  *  "  He  who  is 
master  of  this  sign-language  has,  indeed,  an  almost  magic 
power.  When  the  orator  can  combine  it  with  the  spoken 
language,  he  acquires  thereby  exceeding  vivacity  of  ex- 
pression. Not  only  his  mouth,  but  his  eyes,  his  features, 
his  fingers,  speak.  The  hearers  read  the  coming  sentiment 
upon  his  countenance  and  limbs  almost  before  his  voice 
reaches  their  ears :  they  are  both  spectators  and  listeners ; 
every  sense  is  absorbed  in  charmed  attention."  f 

How  happens  it  that  the  man  has  so  often  lost  this  won- 
derful power,  which  the  child  possessed  ?  In  some  cases  he 
has  been  hardened,  even  in  early  manhood,  by  the  too  fierce 
struggle  of  life,  and  has  lost  the  fresh  and  lively  feeling  of 
childhood.  In  most  cases  he  has  become  constrained  and 
self-conscious,  no  longer  forgetting  himself,  as  the  child 
did,  in  the  subject  he  speaks  of,  and  whether  he  be  timid 
or  vain,  his  manner  is  of  necessity  unnatural  and  awkward. 
Action  is  true  only  when  it  is  spontaneous,  and  for  the 
moment  almost  unconscious.  Even  the  child  becomes  con- 
strained as  soon  as  it  is  aware  of  being  observed ;  and  on 
the  other  hand,  the  shyest  or  most  conceited  man,  if  his 
whole  soul  be  absorbed  in  his  subject,  and  himself  for  the 
time  forgotten,  again  grows  free  and  expressive  in  action,  — 
so  far,  at  least,  as  bad  habits  will  now  permit.  And  besides 
all  this,  there  has  sometimes  been  the  influence  of  wrong 
notions  about  action,  learned  from  unwise  teachers  or  from 
casual  talk. 

How  then  shall  the  preacher,  in  this  respect  also,  "  be  as 
the  little  children  ?  "  He  must  cultivate  his  religious  sensi- 
bilities, and  a  realizing  faith.  He  must  prayerfully  seek 
to  care  more  for  his  sacred  themes,  and  less  for  himself — 
to  keep  the  thought  of   self  habitually  and  thoroughly 

*  Herbert  Spencer  on  Style,  p.  11.     Quintilian  (XI,  3)  compares 
also  the  impression  made  on  us  hy  pictures, 
f  Dabney's  Sac   Rhet.  p.  323. 


466      ON    DELIVERY,   AS    REGARDS    ACTION. 

subordinate  to  the  thought  of  saving  souls,  and  glorifying 
the  Redeemer.  He  must  remember  that  he  himself,  as  the 
Creator  made  him,  is  called  to  preach  the  gospel ;  and 
that  with  his  individuality  unimpaired,  while  faculties  are 
developed  and  faults  corrected,  he  is  to  do  the  work  to 
him  appointed.  Then,  thoroughly  possessed  with  his  sub- 
ject, lifted  above  the  fear  of  man,  and  kindled  into  zeal  for 
usefulness,  let  him  speak  out  what  he  thinks  and  feels.  No 
doubt  he  will  make  some  blunders  ;  but  what  of  that?  A 
child  can  never  learn  to  walk,  without  sometimes  falling. 
But  the  child  will  not  keep  on  falling  the  same  way ; 
and  so  the  speaker's  blunders  may  teach  him  something. 
Though  probably  not  aware  of  them  at  the  time,  because 
too  busy  with  higher  things,  he  may  recall  afterwards  his 
faults  of  action,  or  may  be  told  of  them  by  some  kindly,  or 
perhaps  some  unkind  critic,  —  and  next  time  he  will  notice 
a  little,  and  correct  or  avoid. 

Some  men  have  naturally  much  more  action  than  others. 
And  so  with  races,  and  men  of  the  same  race  in  different 
regions.  The  more  excitable  nations,  as  the  French,  ges- 
ticulate almost  constantly  ;  the  English  comparatively  lit- 
tle. On  this  subject  English  writers  should  not  be  heeded 
by  us ;  *  for  Americans  are  naturally  more  ardent  and 
excitable,  more  inclined  to  free  and  varied  gesture,  than  the 
English.  And  the  same  man  will  have  more  or  less  action, 
according  to  his  physical  condition  and  the  mood  he  is  in, 
as  well  as  according  to  the  subject  and  the  circumstances. 
Trust,  then,  to  spontaneous  impulse.  Do  not  repress  na- 
ture, save  where  particular  faults  present  themselves.  And 
never  force  nature ;  for  action  is  not  indispensable,  while 
unnatural  action  would  be  injurious.  Eobert  Hall  had 
usually  not  much  gesture,  though  his  expression  of  counts-  ' 
nance  was  remarkable.     Spurgeon  has  nothing  very  strik- 

*  E.  g,  "Whately,  p.  443,  says:   "Action  is  hardly  to  be  reckoned 
(16  any  part  of  tlie  orator's  art." 


ON    DELIVERY,    AS    REGARDS    ACTION.      467 

ing  in  his  action,  but  an  extraordinary  voice.  On  the  other 
hand,  "  there  is  an  oaken  desk  shown  at  Eisenach,  which 
Luther  broke  with  his  fist  in  preaching ;  "  *  and  the  Apos- 
tle Paul  appears  to  have  had  a  peculiar  and  impressive 
manner  of  stretching  forth  his  hand.  Do,  then,  what  is 
natural  with  you,  and  at  the  time.  Have  much  or  little 
action,  of  this  sort  or  of  that.  And  always  remember  that 
you  are  not  engaged  in  a  tournament,  but  in  a  battle  — 
that  your  great  concern  is  not  to  keep  within  rules,  but  to 
conquer. 

It  has  been  remarked  above  that  action,  the  "speech  of 
the  body,"  includes  several  distinct  things. 

1.  Expression  of  countenance  has  great  power.  "But 
especially  dominant  is  the  countenance.  With  this  we 
supplicate,  threaten,  or  soothe,  with  this  we  are  sad  or  joy- 
ous, elated  or  dejected ;  on  this  the  people  hang,  this  they 
look  at  and  study,  even  before  we  speak  ....  this  is  often 
superior  to  all  words."  f  With  the  exception,  however,  of 
one  feature,  expression  of  countenance  is  almost  involun- 
tary, and  little  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  improvement 
beyond  the  correction  of  faults.  When  a  man  is  possessed 
with  his  subject,  and  thoroughly  subordinates  all  thought 
of  self,  his  countenance  will  spontaneously  assume  every 
appropriate  expression. 

But  the  exception  is  notable.  Cicero  says:  "In  delivery, 
next  to  the  voice  in  effectiveness  is  the  countenance ;  and 
this  is  ruled  over  by  the  eyes."  %  "The  expressive  power 
of  the  human  eye  is  so  great  that  it  determines,  in  a  man- 
ner, the  expression  of  the  whole  countenance.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  disguise  it.  It  is  said  that  gamblers  rely 
more  upon  the  study  of  the  eye,  to  discover  the  state  of 
their  opponents'  game,  than  upon  any  other  means.  Even 
animals  are  susceptible  of  its  power.  The  dog  watches  the 
eyes  of  his  master,  and  discovers  from  them,  before  a  word 

♦Hoppin.  p.  253.  f  Quint.  XI,  3,  72.  J  De  Or.  Ill,  59. 


468      ON    DELIVERY,    AS    REGARDS    ACTION. 

is  s])oken,  whether  he  is  to  expect  a  caress,  or  apprehend 
chastisement.     It  is  said  that  the  lion  cannot  attack  a  man 

so  long  as  the  man  looks  him  steadily  in  the  eyes All 

the  passions  and  emotions  of  the  human  heart,  in  all  their 
degrees  and  interworkings  with  each  other,  express  them- 
selves, with  the  utmost  fulness  and  power,  in  the  eyes."  * 
Now  the  eyes  we  can  in  some  respects  control.  We  cannot 
by  a  volition  make  them  blaze,  or  glisten,  or  melt ;  but  we 
can  always  look  at  the  hearers.  And  the  importance  of  this 
it  would  be  difficult  to  overstate.  Besides  the  direct  power 
which  the  speaker's  eye  has  over  the  audience,  penetrating 
their  very  soul  with  its  glance,  it  is  by  looking  that  he 
catches  their  expression  of  countenance,  and  enters  into 
living  sympathy  with  them.  We  have  before  remarked 
upon  the  sustaining  and  stimulating  power  of  sympathy  in 
the  audience.f  He  who  does  not  feel  helped  by  this,  and 
does  not  greatly  miss  it  when  wanting,  was  not  born  to  be 
a  public  speaker,  or  has  strangely  perverted  his  nature  by 
wrong  notions  and  bad  methods.  And  in  addition  to  the 
involuntary  effect  upon  the  speaker  of  seeing  the  counte- 
nances of  his  hearers,  he  can  watch  the  effect  produced, 
and  purposely  adapt  his  thoughts,  style  and  manner  to  their 
condition  at  the  moment. 

If  a  man  feels  as  he  should,  his  look  at  the  outset  will  be 
respectful  without  timidity,  independent  without  defiance 
or  conceit,  and  solemn  without  sanctimoniousness,  and  then 
will  spontaneously  change  its  character  with  every  varia- 
tion of  feeling. 

2.  Posture.  In  walking,  standing,  sitting,  riding,  one 
should  take  pains  to  acquire  habitual  uprightness  and  ease; 

•'^McTlvaine,  p.  400. 

fintrod.  g  1.  Comp.  also  Part  IV,  chap.  1,  upon  the  great 
advantage  which  an  extemporaneous  speaker  has  in  the  freedom  of 
the  eye.  Mcllvaine,  p.  103  ff.,  states  very  strongly  the  value  of  sym- 
pnthv  \n  public  speaking. 


ON    DELIVERY,    AS    REGARDS    ACTION.      469 

and  then  in  public  speaking  there  will  be  little  danger  of 
his  assuming  any  other  than  an  appropriate  posture.  But 
there  are  various  faults  which,  through  lack  of  such  habits, 
or  from  mistaken  views  of  oratory  or  wrong  feelings  at  the 
time  of  speaking,  many  persons  exhibit.  Quintilian  and 
later  writers  give  warning  as  to  these,  and  some  of  them 
ought  to  be  mentioned. 

Among  the  commonest  faults  of  preachers  is  leaning  on 
the  pulpit.  All  inexperienced  speakers  are  apt,  feeling  ill 
at  ease,  to  have  a  tottering  equilibrium,  and  to  look  for 
something  with  which  they  may  prop  themselves.  The 
pulpit  is  so  convenient  for  this  purpose,  that  we  need  not 
wonder  if  a  habit  of  leaning  on  it  is  often  formed.  When 
a  young  preacher  finds  himself  inclined  to  this,  he  should 
not  only  resist  the  tendency  while  in  the  pulpit,  but  should 
take  pains  in  social  meetings,  Sunday-school  speaking,  etc., 
to  stand  out  with  nothing  before  him.  A  few  early  experi- 
ences will  rapidly  form  a  habit,  good  or  bad. 

The  body  should  be  simply  erect.  A  slight  inclination 
of  the  head  at  the  opening  is  with  most  men  a  natural 
expression  of  deference  for  the  audience,  but  it  must  be 
very  slight,  and  will  disappear  as  the  preacher  grows  more 
animated.  An  habitual  stoop  is  a  grave  fault,  both  because 
unsightly,  and  because  hurtful  to  the  organs  of  speech,  and 
should  be  corrected  if  possible ;  with  a  few  men  it  is 
natural  and  invincible.  To  "  rear  back,"  as  some  do,  sug- 
gests, though  it  be  unjustly,  the  idea  of  arrogance  or 
conceit. 

The  arms  should  hang  quietly  by  the  side.  To  fold  them 
on  the  breast  is  a  gesture  expressive  of  peculiar  sentiments 
and  to  be  rarely  used.  To  place  the  hands  on  the  hips,  if 
with  the  fingers  forward,  seems  to  indicate  a  sort  of  pert 
defiance;  if  with  the  fingers  backward,  it  suggests  weakness 
in  the  back.  To  clasp  the  hands  over  the  abdomen  is 
offensive,  and  to  clasp  the  hands  behind  the  back,  though 
40 


470      ON    DELIVERY,   AS    REGARDS    ACTION. 

not  offensive,  is  scarcely  graceful,  particularly  if  they  are 
placed  under  the  coat-skirts.  To  put  them  in  the  coat 
pockets  is  inelegant,  and  in  the  breeches  pocket  is  vulgar. 
To  stand,  as  many  do,  with  one  hand  in  the  bosom,  or  to 
occupy  one  hand  in  playing  with  a  watch  key  or  guard,  or 
with  coat-buttons,  etc.,  (Andrew  Fullers  practice,)  is  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree  undesirable.  It  is  natural  that  the 
arms  should  at  first  hang  easily  by  the  side,  (with  the 
palm  towards  the  body,)  until  there  is  occasion  to  move  one 
or  both  in  gesticulation,  and  that  after  any  gesture  they 
should  tend  back  to  the  same  position,  though  in  many 
cases  they  remain  for  a  while  in  some  intermediate  position 
of  comparative  repose. 

The  feet  should  neither  be  far  apart,  like  a  sailor,  nor  in 
immediate  contact.  Their  precise  position  will  be  deter- 
mined by  the  man's  form  and  habits,  and  rules  laying 
down  one  particular  posture  should  be  rejected.  The 
Roman  orator  commonly  stood  with  the  left  foot  forward, 
because  he  bore  up  the  toga  on  his  left  arm,  and  the 
ancient  soldier  advanced  the  left  foot,  because  his  left  arm 
carried  the  shield.  No  similar  causes  now  exist  for  regu- 
larly advancing  the  left  foot.*  The  only  ground  of  choice 
would  seem  to  be,  that  if  one  hand  is  at  any  time  actively 
used  in  gesticulating,  it  seems  natural  and  easier  to  have 
the  corresponding  foot  thrown  somewhat  forward.  How 
often  a  speaker  is  to  change  posture  will  depend  on  his 
temperament  and  his  excitement  at  the  time;  one  need 
scarcely  give  himself  any  concern  on  that  point,  unless  he 
happens  to  be  inclined  to  a  restless,  fidgety  movement, 
which  is  of  course  to  be  avoided.  We  must  beware  of 
"striking  an  attitude,"  like  Corporal  Trim,  and  many  an 
other  would-be  orator. 

He  who  finds  himself  inclined  to  any  of  these  faults,  ought 
resolutely  to  correct  them,  carefully  to  guard  against  them. 
*  Russell's  Pulpi'  Elocution,  p.  357. 


ON    DELIVERY,    AS     REGARDS    ACTION.      471 

The  only  real  difficulty  about  correcting  such  comparatively 
trifling  faults  is  that  men  will  not  think  them  worth  the 
trouble.  But  nothing  that  at  all  affects  a  preacher's  use- 
fulness is  really  trifling.  The  young  need  have  but  little 
trouble  in  curing  these  bad  habits;  and  for  those  of  middle 
age  it  is  still  entirely  possible.  Resolute  determination, 
with  perseverance,  and  especially  care  to  form  counter 
habits  when  out  of  the  pulpit,  will  commonly  triumph. 
If  such  defects  really  cannot  be  remedied,  one  must  try 
not  to  be  worried  about  them,  but  to  do  his  best  notwith- 
standing. 

3.  Gesture  —  when  we  have  excluded  posture  —  denotes 
movement,  whether  of  the  whole  person,  the  feet,  the  body, 
the  head,  or  the  hands.  It  is  not  natural  for  a  speaker,  if 
at  all  animated,  to  stand  perfectly  still,  and  it  is  impor- 
tant not  to  fidget  about,  nor  to  walk  the  platform  like  a 
tiger  in  his  cage.  Between  these  extremes,  a  man  will 
change  place  more  or  less  freely  according  to  temperament, 
circumstances,  and  taste.  To  stamp  with  the  foot,  may 
sometimes  naturally  express  indignation  or  certain  other 
vehement  feelings,  but  it  is  apt  to  suggest  an  impotent 
rage ;  and  at  any  rate  it  is  scarcely  ever  becoming  in  a 
preacher.  Movements  of  the  body,  such  as  rocking  to  and 
fro,  or  swaying  from  side  to  side,  are  almost  always  to  be 
avoided,  and  bending  far  forward  is  very  rarely  proper. 
The  head  has  a  variety  of  appropriate  and  expressive 
movements,  but  one  must  beware  of  awkwardness,  extreme 
vehemence,  and  monotony. 

The  arms  and  hands  have  to  be  considered  together 
because  in  public  speaking  there  can  be  scarcely  any 
gesture  with  the  hand  that  is  not  naturally  accompanied 
by  some  movement  of  the  arm.  Thus  either  may  be  taken 
as  representing  both.  The  Greeks  comprehended  the  whole 
art  of  elocution  under  the  term  chironomy,  or  management 
of  the  hands.*  Certainly  the  hands  and  arms  are  in  ge? 
*  Russell,  p.  360. 


472      ON    DELIVERY,   AS    REGARDS    ACTION. 

ture  of  unequalled  importance.  Quintilian  says :  "  As  to 
the  hands,  without  Avhich  delivery  would  be  mutilated  and 
feeble,  it  can  scarcely  be  said  how  many  movements  they 
have,  when  they  almost  equal  the  number  of  words.  For 
other  parts  of  the  person  help  the  speaker,  these,  I  might 
almost  say,  speak  themselves."  *  But  many  speakers 
are  greatly  at  a  loss  what  to  do  with  their  hands,t  and 
a  similar  difficulty  is  often  betrayed  in  the  parlor  and 
on  the  street.  Gresley  here  points  out  an  advantage  of 
reading  sermons  :  "  The  extemporaneous  preacher  .... 
must  find  employment  for  his  hands.  But  when  you  have 
your  sermon  written  before  you,  your  hands  are  occasionally 
used  in  turning  over  the  leaves  of  the  manuscript,"  J  and  so 
the  reader,  fortunate  man,  is  not  compelled  to  gesticulate. 

It  would  be  tedious  to  catalogue  the  faults  which  may  be 
observed  in  gesture  with  the  hand  and  arm.  Among  the 
commonest  are  a  fluttering  of  the  hands,  which  with  some 
persons  becomes  a  marked  habit ;  a  shoving  motion,  which 
is  appropriate  to  express  abhorrence,  or  any  repulsion,  but 
not  otherwise ;  and  a  sort  of  boxing  movement.  Some 
work  the  arm  up  and  down,  like  a  pump  handle,  and  others 
flap  the  fore-arm  only,  like  a  penguin's  wiugs,  instead  of 
moving  the  arm  from  the  shoulder,  with  the  free  action 
which  public  speaking  naturally  prompts.  Angular  move- 
ments are  appropriate  to  certain  sentiments,  but  as  habit- 
ual, are  very  awkward.  The  palm  of  the  hand,  as  its  most 
expressive  part,  should  in  general  be  turned  towards  the 
audience,  and  somewhat  expanded.  "  Yet  how  often  we 
see  the  hand  of  the  speaker  held  out  flat  and  close,  like  a 
piece  of  board,  or  edgewise,  like  a  chopping  knife,  or  feebly 
hollowed,  like  that  of  a  beggar,  receiving  alms.  Some- 
times, on  the  contrary,  we  see  it  clinched  in  a  style  which 
calls  up  the  associations  of  smiting  with  the  fist  of  wicked- 

*  Quint.  XI,  3,  85.  f  Comp.  above,  as  to  posture. 

1  Greslty  on  Preaching,  p.  282. 


ON    DELIVERY,   AS    REGARDS    ACTION,      473 

ness."  *  The  clenched  hand,  the  pointed  fore-finger,  etc., 
are  very  effective  when  their  peculiar  meaning  is  wanted, 
and  otherwise  are  proportionally  inappropriate  and  dam- 
aging. It  is  also  a  common  fault  to  bring  down  the  hand 
with  a  slap  on  the  thigh,  a  movement  necessarily  ungrace- 
ful, or  to  slap  the  hands  frequently  together,  which  is  very 
rarely  appropriate  ;  and  some  preachers  have  quite  a  trick 
of  banging  the  Bible. 

In  all  the  employments  and  circumstances  of  life,  let  the 
speaker  see  to  it  that  his  bearing  shall  be  free,  uncon- 
strained, and  not  ungraceful.  Then  in  speaking  he  will 
have  little  occasion  to  think  of  posture  or  gesture,  and  may 
follow,  without  fear,  the  promptings  of  nature.  In  general, 
one  should  never  repress  a  movement  to  which  he  is  in- 
clined, because  afraid  it  may  not  be  graceful.  After  all,  life 
and  power  are  far  more  important  than  grace ;  and,  in  fact, 
timid  self-repression  destroys  grace  itself.  On  the  other 
hand,  never  make  any  gesture  from  calculation.  It  must  be 
the  spontaneous  product  of  present  feeling,  or  it  is  unnat- 
ural, and  has  but  a  galvanized  life.  He  who  declaims  or 
even  thinks  over  his  address  beforehand,  and  arranges  that 
here  or  there  he  will  make  such  or  such  a  gesture,  will 
inevitably  mar  his  delivery  at  that  point  by  a  fault,  were 
he  Edward  Everett  himself.  It  is  inexpressibly  foolish, 
though  actually  done  by  some  teachers  of  elocution,  to  be 
determining  how  many  sentences  may  be  uttered  before  the 
first  gesture.  It  is  utterly  unwise  to  begin  gesticulating  at 
any  point  from  the  notion  that  it  is  now  time  to  begin. 
The  time  to  begin  is  when  one  feels  like  beginning,  neither 
sooner  nor  later.  A  sermon  or  other  speech  ought  usually 
to  open  quietly,  and  therefore  there  will  usually  be  no  ges- 
tures just  at  the  outset. 

A  few  simple  rules  may  be  added,  with  regard  to  action 
of  every  kind. 

*  Russell,  p.  360. 
40* 


474      ON    DELIYEHY,   AS    REGARDS    ACTION. 

(1.)  Action  should  be  suggestive  rather  than  imitative. 
Closely  imitative  gestures,  except  in  the  case  of  certain  dig- 
nified actions,  are  unsuitable  to  grave  discourse,  and  belong 
rather  to  comedy.  In  saying,  "he  stabbed  him  to  the 
heart,"  one  will  make  some  vehement  movement  of  the 
hand,  suggestive  of  the  mortal  blow ;  a  movement  imitat- 
ing it,  would  be  ridiculous,  comic.  A  really  good  man,  in 
preaching  at  a  University,  once  said :  "  You  shut  your 
eyes  to  the  beauty  of  piety  :  you  stop  your  ears  to  the  calls 
of  the  gospel :  you  turn  your  back,"  etc.,  and  in  saying  it, 
shut  his  eyes,  stopped  his  ears  with  his  fingers,  and  whirled 
his  broad  back  into  view.  Alas  !  for  the  good  done  to  the 
students  by  his  well-meant  sermon.  In  "  suiting  the  action 
to  the  word,"  he  "o'erstepped  the  modesty  of  nature." 
Even  lifting  the  eyes  toward  heaven,  or  pointing  the  finger 
toward  it,  or  pressing  the  hand  upon  the  heart,  etc.,  though 
allowable,  are  sometimes  carried  too  far,  or  too  often  re- 
peated. 

(2.)  Gesture  must  never  follow,  and  commonly  must 
slightly  precede,  the  emphatic  word  of  the  sentence.*  It 
seems  to  be  natural  that  excited  feeling  should  find  a  more 
prompt  expression  in  the  instinctive  movement,  than  in 
speech,  which  is  the  product  of  reflection. 

(3.)  Action  must  not  be  excessive,  in  frequency  or  in 
vehe.mence.  To  some  subjects,  occasions,  or  states  of  feeling 
in  the  speaker,  it  is  natural  that  the  action  should  be  rare 
and  slight.  Too  frequent  gesture,  like  italics  in  writing 
and  emphasis  in  speaking,  gradually  weakens  its  own  effect. 
Extreme  vehemence  produces  a  revulsion  of  feeling  in  the 
hearer,  a  tendency  to  just  the  opposite  of  what  the  speaker 
desires.  Hamlet  says  to  the  players:  "Do  not  saw  the 
air  too  much  with  your  hand  thus,  but  use  all  gently  :  for 
in  the  very  torrent,  tempest,  and  (as  I  may  say)  whirl- 
wind of  your  passion,  you  must  acquire  and  beget  a  tem- 
perance that  may  give  it  smoothness." 
*  Whately,  p.  445. 


ON    DELIVERY,    AS    REGARDS    ACTION.      475 

(4.)  Avoid  monotony.  A  certain  unvarying  round  of 
postures  and  gestures,  again  and  again  repeated,  is  a  some- 
what common,  and  most  grievous  fault.  Akin  to  it,  though 
not  yet  so  offensive,  is  the  use,  from  mere  habit,  of  some 
favorite  gesture,  when  the  emotion  felt  would  be  better 
expressed  by  some  other.  The  noticeably  frequent  recur- 
rence of  a  word,  a  tone,  or  a  gesture  is  always  a  fault,  and 
as  soon  as  one  becomes  aware  of  it,  should  be  carefully 
avoided.* 

In  conclusion,  it  is  proper  to  repeat  that  at  all  hazards 
there  must  be  life,  freedom,  power.  Do  not  repress  nature, 
though  it  must  be  governed ;  and  do  not  force  nature.  Aim 
not  at  positive  improvement  in  action,  but  negative  —  the 
correction  of  faults  as  they  appear.  Look  out  for  such 
faults.  Now  and  then  ask  some  true  and  very  judicious 
friend  to  apprise  you  of  such  as  may  have  struck  him.  No 
one  can  be  in  this  respect  so  helpful  as  an  intelligent  wife. 
Speak  out  freely  and  boldly  what  you  feel.  A  man  can 
never  learn  to  perform  any  movement  gracefully  save  by 
performing  it,  frequently  and  with  great  freedom.  The 
vine  must  grow,  or  you  cannot  prune  it.  And  let  us  not 
forget  that  even  some  of  a  man's  faults,  in  action  and  in 
voice,  may  be  a  part  of  himself.  Correct  them  wherever 
possible  ;  but  better  let  them  remain,  than  be  succeeded 
either  by  lameness  or  by  artificiality. 

*  Comp.  as  to  variety  of  expression,  Part  III,  chap.  4,  end. 


Part  V. 

CONDUCT  or  PUBLIC  WORSHIP. 


IMPORTANCE   OF   PUBLIC   WORSHIP. 

{  1.  Reading  Scripture.  ^  2.  Hymns.  §  3.  Public  Prater. 
§  4.  Length  of  Services,  g  5.  Pulpit  Decorum.  |  6.  Con- 
cluding Remarks. 

A  TENDENCY  may  often  be  observed  in  our  religious 
assemblies  to  neglect  the  worship,  and  think  only  of 
the  preaching.  Indeed,  we  frequently  hear  good  men  speak 
of  the  preliminary  exercises.  The  devout  reading  of  God's 
Word,  sweet  hymns  of  praise,  and  "prayer  and  supplica- 
tion, with  thanksgiving"  —  these,  we  must  understand,  are 
of  no  great  importance,  only  the  porch,  the  threshold ! 
Straws  show  which  way  the  wind  blows,  and  the  very  form 
of  public  notices  is  here  instructive.  "Divine  service  will 
be  held  at  St.  Mark's  Church,  on  next,"  etc.     "  The  Rev. 

will    preach    at   the   Baptist    ( Presbyterian, 

Methodist,  etc.)  Church,  on  next,"  etc.  The  Episcopal 
notice  mentions  only  the  service.  The  others  mention  only 
the  preaching,  and  rarely  fail  to  say  who  is  to  preach. 
Accordingly,  Highchurchmen  usually  care  little  for  the 
sermon,  being  mainly  concerned  that  it  should  be  suitably 
dhort ;  though  evangelical  Episcopalians  lay  much  greater 
stress  on  preaching,  and  are  often  anxious  for  some  liberty 
of  omission  in  the  service.     The  ether  denominations  men- 

476 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP.  477 

tioned,  too  generally  think  little  of  the  service,  the  worship. 
Some  persons  among  them,  dissatisfied  with  the  felt  lack  of 
interest,  imagine  that  there  is  no  remedy  save  in  having  a 
"  form  of  worship,"  or  some  approach  to  it ;  and  accord- 
ingly one  meets  now  and  then  with  a  Sunday-school  or  con- 
gregation reading  alternate  verses,  or  engaged  in  choral 
responses,  etc.,  —  some  "  entering  wedge  "  for  other  things. 
But  the  remedy  lies  elsewhere.  The  freedom,  sponta- 
neity, simplicity,  spirituality,  of  New  Testament  worship 
must  be  maintained  at  all  costs.  The  natural  tendency  of 
the  human  heart  to  make  much  of  externals  while  devoid 
of  spirituality,  must  by  all  means  be  resisted.  So  far  as  it 
is  lack  of  devotional  feeling  on  their  part  that  makes  men 
weary  of  informal  modes  of  worship,  so  far  we  must  beware 
of  yielding.  But  the  dissatisfaction  is  often  caused,  at  least 
in  part,  by  the  coldness,  lack  of  animation,  want  of  con- 
nection, and  general  slovenliness  which  in  so  many  cases 
mark  our  worship.  We  must  pay  far  more  attention  to 
this  than  is  common,  both  in  the  way  of  general  cultiva- 
tion and  of  preparation  for  each  particular  occasion.  This 
is  less  necessary  for  those  who  have  only  to  go  through  a 
form  of  service  prepared  by  others,  than  for  him  who,  on 
every  separate  occasion,  is  required  to  produce  a  service, 
for  himself  and  for  the  congregation.  Thoroughly  simple 
in  form,  so  as  not  to  encourage  the  people  to  rest  in  exter- 
nals, but  full  of  interest,  animation,  devoutness,  solemn 
sweetness,  and  with  a  specific  but  inelaborate  adaptation 
to  the  occasion,  —  such  should  be  our  worship.  That  which 
is  not  interesting  and  impressive  cannot  be  the  full  expres- 
sion of  warm  devotion,  and  then  the  expression,  by  a  gen- 
eral law,  reacts  upon  the  feeling.  Externals,  however  they 
may  appeal  to  aesthetic  sentiment,  can  never  create  devo- 
tion ;  but  animated  and  earnest  expression  will  strengthen 
devotion,  and  this  may  be  achieved  while  carefully  avoid- 
ing the  danger  of  formalism. 


478  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP. 

It  is  therefore  deemed  important  to  speak  of  the  preach- 
er's part  in  the  conduct  of  public  worship.  This  can  only 
be  done  very  briefly  here,  though  the  subject  deserves  mi- 
nute discussion,  and,  in  fact,  a  separate  treatise.* 

§  1.      READING    SCRIPTURE. 

1.  In  selecting  the  portion  or  portions  of  Scripture  to  be 
read,  we  should  prefer  such  as  are  in  a  high  degree  devo- 
tional ;  e.  g.  many  of  the  Psalms,  passages  from  Isaiah  and 
other  Prophets,  from  the  Gospels,  Epistles,  and  Revelation. 
These  will  not  only  instruct,  but  will  awaken  devout  feel- 
ing. The  reading  of  them  will  naturally  precede  the  prin- 
cipal prayer,  whether  immediately,  or  with  the  interven- 
tion of  a  hymn.  The  particular  kind  of  devotional  pas- 
sages selected,  and  the  general  tone  of  the  sermon,  should 
harmonize.  To  read  a  mournful  passage,  and  afterward 
preach  a  joyful  sermon,  or  vice  versa,  would  be  inappro- 
priate. Still,  a  general  harmony  is  sufficient ;  great  effort 
to  find  an  exact  correspondence  is  unnecessary,  if  not  un- 
becoming. 

But  there  are  many  cases  in  which  the  preacher  wishes 
to  read  the  connection  of  his  text.  If  this  connection  is 
highly  devotional  in  tone,  it  may  be  read  at  the  usual 
point,  as  a  part  of  the  worship.  If  not,  it  should  be  read 
after  the  principal  prayer,  either  before  the  second  hymn 
or  when  announcing  the  text.  In  this  case  it  is  often  well 
to  read  before  the  prayer  some  brief  devotional  passage,  as 

*The  pastor's  management  as  to  the  whole  ordering  of  public 
worship,  belongs  only  to  works  on  Pastoral  Duties;  but  the  part 
which  he  himself  performs,  stands  in  immediate  and  almost  insep- 
arable connection  with  his  work  as  a  preacher,  and  may  be  regarded 
either  as  pertaining  to  Homiletics,  or  to  the  pastoral  work  in  gen- 
eral. The  best  discussions  are  those  of  Hoppin,  Shedd,  and  the 
German  writers.  See  below  for  works  on  Hymns,  and  on  Public 
Prayer. 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP.  479 

a  few  verses  from  a  psalm.  Sometimes  two  different  pas- 
sages may  be  read  in  immediate  succession.  In  all  these 
details  there  is  large  liberty,  and  one  need  be  no  more 
bound  by  custom  than  by  rubric.  Good  taste  and  devout 
feeling  should  govern,  and  there  may  be  an  interesting 
variety,  without  hunting  after  novelty.  A  good  effect  is 
sometimes  produced  by  reading  the  connection  of  the  text 
when  just  closing  the  sermon.  In  very  many  cases  it  is 
best  not  to  read  the  connection  at  all,  but  to  make  a  sum- 
mary statement  of  it  in  opening  the  discourse. 

The  passages  selected  need  not  begin  or  end  with  a  chap- 
ter. Some  preachers  seem  to  feel  bound  to  read  a  whole 
chapter,  however  long,  and  only  a  chapter,  however  short. 
We  have  heretofore  seen  *  that  the  current  division  into 
chapters  is  awkwardly  made,  often  uniting  matters  which 
are  wholly  distinct,  and  dividing  where  there  is  a  close 
connection.  By  quietly  disregarding  them  whenever  the 
sense  requires,  a  preacher  will  help  the  effect  of  the  service, 
and  will  accustom  his  hearers  to  look  out  for  the  real  con- 
nection, in  their  own  reading. 

If  the  passage  proposed  contains  expressions  which  now 
and  to  us  seem  indelicate,  it  may  be  either  exchanged  for 
another,  or  the  portions  in  question  omitted,  where  that  can 
be  done  without  attracting  attention,  and  without  material 
loss.  In  general  such  expressions  should  be  read,  and  if 
80,  then  without  the  slightest  hesitation,  reserve,  or  mani- 
festation of  feeling.  The  beautiful  air  of  unconsciousness 
seen  in  a  refined  woman,  when  she  is  led  to  hear  or  see 
something  indelicate,  is  in  all  such  cases  the  best  model. 

2.  To  read  well,  is  a  rare  accomplishment.  It  is  much 
more  common  to  excel  in  singing,  or  in  public  speaking. 
Good  preachers  are  numerous,  compared  with  good  readers. 
The  requisites  to  good  reading  are  several.  One  must  have 
great  quickness  of  apprehension,  seizing  the  meaning  of 
*Comp.  Parti,  chap.  2,  ^2. 


480  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WOKSHIP. 

whole  sentences  at  a  glance ;  for  one  of  the  commonest 
faults  is  to  begin  reading  a  sentence  with  an  expression 
which  does  not  accord  with  its  close ;  and  in  fact,  the 
reader  must  throughout  keep  clearly  in  mind  the  entire 
connection,  and  read  every  sentence  as  part  of  a  greater 
whole.  This  also  shows  the  need  of  a  familiar  acquaint- 
ance with  what  is  read,  and  if  not  with  the  language  of 
the  passage,  at  any  rate  with  its  subject-matter.  A  second 
requisite  is  sensibility,  so  as  not  only  to  understand,  but 
promptly  and  thoroughly  to  sympathize  with  the  sentiment. 
Probably  this  is  oftener  wanting  than  the  former.  There 
must  also  be  great  flexibility  of  voice,  so  as  at  once  and 
exactly  to  express  every  varying  shade  of  feeling.  And 
finally,  it  requires  ample  and  careful  practice.  But  very 
few  persons  practise  reading  much  at  the  critical  period  of 
life.  In  childhood,  knowledge  is  too  limited,  the  voice  has 
too  little  power,  and  the  details  of  pronunciation,  etc.,  re- 
quire too  much  attention,  to  admit  of  thoroughly  good 
reading.  Just  at  the  time  of  opening  maturity,  when  the 
mind  is  developed  in  strength  and  quick  in  its  grasp,  when 
the  sympathies  are  wide  and  still  sensitive,  when  the  voice 
has  reached  nearly  its  full  power  and  lost  nothing  of  its 
flexibility,  ought  there  to  be  thorough  training,  whether 
with  or  without  instruction,  in  the  noble  art  of  reading. 
Careful  exercise  in  reading  ought  to  close  the  course  of 
College  study.  If  at  College  commencements,  instead  of 
the  inevitable  speech  we  could  hear  some  graduates  read — 
not  with  elocutionary  display,  and  half- acting  tricks,  but 
simple,  manly,  genuine  reading —  it  would  be  a  pleasure 
and  a  profit  to  all  concerned.  A  Reading  Club  in  a  vil- 
lage, especially  if  it  includes  both  sexes,*  will  often  be 

^  Women,  of  equal  culture  and  practice,  will  oftener  read  well 
than  men ;  and  this  is  not  surprising  when  we  note  that  women  are 
usually  quicker  in  apprehension,  more  sensitive  in  feeling  and  sym- 
pathy, and  have  greater  flexibility  of  voice. 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP.  481 

more  profitable  than  a  debating  society.  Instruction  in 
reading  is  less  hazardous  than  in  public  speaking,  because 
the  former  is  to  some  extent  necessarily  an  artificial  thing, 
and  in  reading  there  is  somewhat  less  danger  of  corrupting 
nature  and  falling  into  wretched  afiectations. 

He  who  reads  well,  must  of  course  be  a  master  of  cor- 
rect pronunciation,*  and  must  have  acquired  a  distinct  and 
easy  articulation.  Beyond  these,  everything  is  included  in 
what  we  call  expression;  and  power  of  expression,  so  far  as 
it  is  not  a  natural  gift,  must  be  acquired  by  well-ordered 
practice.  The  practice  ought  usually  to  be  in  reading  that 
with  which  he  is  well  acquainted,  and  in  full  sympathy. 
Besides  such  reading  for  practice,  one  should  embrace  every 
fit  occasion  of  reading  for  the  pleasure  and  profit  of  those 
who  hear  —  selecting  something  full  of  interest,  so  that  he 
may  forget  himself  in  the  sentiment.  And  preachers  in- 
clined to  be  lugubrious  ought  by  all  means  to  read  in  pri- 
vate some  humorous  selections,  in  order  to  maintain  the 
equilibrium. 

Among  the  different  elements  of  expression  in  reading, 
two  or  three  must  be  briefly  mentioned.  The  first  thing 
thought  of  is  apt  to  be  emphasis;  and  the  first  result  of 
effort  in  this  direction  is  usually  a  great  amount  of  false 
emphasis.  Besides  the  obvious  fault  of  placing  it  on  the 
wrong  word,  there  is  a  subtler  and  very  serious  fault,  which 
consists  in  failing  properly  to  distribute  the  emphasis. 
Many  men  of  ability  and  cultivation  will  throw  the  whole 
weight  of  emphasis  upon  a  single  word  of  the  sentence  or 
clause,  when  it  ought  to  be  divided,  in  different  propor- 
tions, between  two,  or  three,  or  several  words.  This  point 
deserves  special  attention  and  practice,  with  mutual  crit- 
icism on  the  part  of  friends.  After  all,  the  real  difficul- 
ty about  emphasis  is   in   thoroughly   comprehending  the 

*  Mcllvaine's  Elocution,  p.  239-93,  has  a  full  discussion  of  this 
subject,  with  many  useful  examples  of  common  errors. 
41 


482  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP. 

thought  and  feeling  the  sentiment  of  what  we  read  ;  as  is 
shown  \y  the  fact  that  we  very  rarely  hear  false  emphasis 
in  unrestrained  conversation.  It  may  be  remarked  that 
the  Book  of  Proverbs  presents  numerous  admirable  exam- 
ples for  exercise  in  emphasis.  Very  many  persons  read 
all  interrogative  sentences  with  the  peculiar  expression  at 
the  close  which  is  appropriate  to  questions  expecting  the 
answer  yes  or  no.  Thus:  Did  he  say  he  would  come? 
But  there  is  a  second  class  of  questions  which  expect  an 
answer,  but  not  in  the  form  of  yes  or  no.  Thus:  Who 
said  he  would  come  ?  And  in  a  third  class  no  answer  is 
expected  ;  as,  Will  any  one  ever  come  and  help  me  ?  The 
distinction  is  here  very  obvious,  and  never  overlooked  in 
conversation,  but  frequently  in  reading.  —  There  should 
very  rarely  be  any  gesture  in  reading,  beyond  some  natural 
movement  of  the  head,  together  with  expression  of  counte- 
nance.—  The  injunction  often  given  by  teachers,  "read 
precisely  as  if  you  were  talking,"  is  not  strictly  correct. 
A  sort  of  oratorical  reading  is  strongly  to  be  condemned, 
and  it  may  be  convenient  to  say,  "  read  more  as  if  you 
were  talking,"  but  the  essential  distinction  between  talk- 
ing and  reading  should  not,  and  in  fact  cannot,  be  des- 
troyed.* 

It  is  particularly  important  that  the  Scriptures  should  be 
well  read.  A  comparatively  small,  and  rapidly  diminish- 
ing number  of  persons  in  our  congregations  are  now  neces- 
sarily dependent  on  public  reading  for  their  entire  know- 
ledge of  Scripture,  as  was  so  common  at  first,  when  it  was 
said,  "  Blessed  is  he  that  readeth,  and  they  that  hear,  the 
words  of  this  prophecy."  f  But  as  a  matter  of  fact,  many 
persons  do  not  read  the  Bible  themselves,  and  their  minds 
are  brought  in  direct  contact  with  it  only  by  the  public 
reading.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  read  the  Bible 
most  at  home,  are  often  most  pleased  to  hear  it  read  in 
*Comp.  Part  IV,  chap.     ,§1,3.  f  Rev.   1  :  3 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHrP.  483 

public  worship.  And  in  general,  whatever  reasons  there 
are  for  reading  anything  well,  apply  pre-eminently  to  the 
book  of  all  books,  the  Word  of  God.  Good  reading  has 
an  exegetical  value,  helping  to  make  plain  the  sense.  It 
also  brings  out  the  full  interest,  and  impressiveness,  of  the 
passage  read.  There  are  passages  which  have  had  a  new 
meaning  for  us,  and  an  added  sweetness,  ever  since  we  once 
heard  them  read,  it  may  be  long  ago,  by  a  good  reader.* 

But  to  read  the  Bible  really  well,  is  a  difficult  task. 
The  common  mode  of  printing  the  verses,  often  seriously 
obscures  the  connection.  The  proper  names  require  atten- 
tion, that  we  may  pronounce  them  readily,  correctly,  and 
yet  without  pedantry.f  Far  more  important  is  the  lack 
of  full  intellectual  and  spiritual  sympathy  with  Scripture, 
which  so  often  prevents  our  entering  fully  into  the  sense. 
There  is  a  common  tendency  to  be  subdued  by  mistaken 
reverence  into  a  uniform  tone,  devoid  of  real  expression. 
The  Bible  should  never  be  read  precisely  as  we  read  other 
books.  It  is  all  sacred,  and  in  reading  even  its  less  strik- 
ingly devotional  parts  there  should  be  a  prevailing  solem- 
nity ;  but  this  solemnity  does  not  forbid  a  rich  variety  of 
expression,  as  many  readers  appear  to  imagine. 

Different  parts  of  the  Bible  also  differ  very  widely  in 
subject  and  style,  and  there  must  be  a  corresponding  differ- 
ence in  the  reading.  There  are  narrative  portions,  varying 
from  simple  stories  through  many  grades  to  the  surpassingly 
pathetic  or  impassioned  ;  didactic  portions,  of  many  kinds, 
as  seen  in  our  Lord's  various  discourses,  in  the  precepts 
which  everywhere  abound,  and  in  the  elaborate  and  often 
passionate  arguments  of   certain  Epistles  of  Paul;    and 

*See  in  Russell,  p.  291-4,  some  good  remarks  on  the  importance 
of  reading  the  Scriptures  well. 

f  Never  depart  from  the  pronunciation  of  them  which  is  common 
among  educated  people,  unless  there  is  something  real  to  be  gained 
by  it. 


184  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC     WORSHIP. 

poetical  portions,  comprising  the  ek  ;ated  in  agery  of  pro- 
phetic description,  both  in  the  Old  and  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, the  poetical  argument  of  Job  and  precepts  of 
Proverbs,  and  the  immense  variety  of  lyrical  passages,  in 
the  Psalms  and  elsewhere,  presenting  many  phases  of  feel- 
ing, and  often  passing,  in  the  same  brief  Psalm,  from 
penitence  to  rejoicing  and  praise.*  In  fact,  the  Bible  is 
not  so  much  a  single  book  as  a  library,  containing  almost 
every  species  of  composition,  and  requiring  to  be  read  in 
almost  every  variety  of  manner. 

One  ought  never  to  read  a  passage  in  public  worship, 
without  being  thoroughhj  acquainted  with  it,  and  this  will 
usually  require  that  it  be  carefully  gone  over  but  a  short 
time  before. 

3.  It  was  once  a  very  common  practice,  and  is  still 
wisely  retained  in  some  quarters,  to  make  in  connection 
with  the  reading,  explanatory  and  other  remarks.  These 
should  not  be  so  numerous  or  extensive  as  to  usurp  the 
attention  due  to  the  passage  itself.  They  should  aim  to 
explain  it,  to  awaken  interest  in  it,  occasionally  to  indicate 
some  of  its  practical  bearings,  and  especially  to  give  it 
effect  in  exciting  devotional  feeling.  If  there  has  been 
thorough  study  of  the  passage,  and  if  the  preacher  has 
taken  pains  to  acquire  skill  in  this  respect,  there  may  be 
brief,  lively  and  yet  devout  remarks  that  will  make  this 
part  of  our  public  worship  far  more  interesting  and  profit- 
able. But  random  remarks,  made  without  study  and  with- 
out skill,  do  but  interrupt  the  reading,  and  are  sometimes 
a  sore  drag  upon  its  movement. 

§  2.      HYMNS. 
1.  It  is  strange  that  some  ministers  should  care  so  little 

*  Russell,  Pulpit  Elocution,  p.  295,  has  a  partially  similar  classi- 
fication, with  some  remarks  upon  the  several  clashes,  and  some  good 
specimens  of  each  variety. 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP.  485 

for  the  proper  selection  of  hymns.  They  surely  do  not 
consider  the  blessed  power  of  sacred  song,  nor  ihe  fact 
that  inappropriate  and  unimpressive  hymns  not  only  fail 
of  doing  good,  but  are  positively  chilling  and  painful. 
Some  take  their  hymns  at  the  first  opening  of  the  book, 
■with  no  care  to  make  them  suit  the  general  tone  of  the 
service.  Others  are  solicitous  that  every  hymn  shall  be 
upon  precisely  the  subject  discussed  in  the  sermon,  forget- 
ting that  hymns  are  designed  not  for  instruction,  but  to 
express  and  quicken  devotional  feeling. 

To  succeed  well  in  selecting,  and  also  in  reading  hymns, 
one  must  understand  the  nature,  and  sympathize  with  the 
spirit  of  lyrical  poetry  —  that  is,  of  poetry  suitable  to  be 
sung.  Some  men  are  so  constituted  as  to  do  this  with  ease, 
but  all  will  be  benefited  by  making,  as  they  may  find 
opportunity,  special  study  of  the  chief  lyric  poets,  such  as 
Pindar  and  Horace,  Goethe  and  Beranger,  Burns  and  the 
Old  English  Ballads,*  as  well  as  good  lyrics  from  many 
other  sources.  This  will  not  only  develop  and  refine  the 
general  taste  for  poetry,  but  the  special  taste  for  lyrics, 
which,  besides  their  importance  for  our  purpose,  are  among 
the  highest  and  most  potent  forms  that  poetry  can  assume.f 

The  devout  study  of  the  Psalms,  while  pursued  chiefly 
for  higher  purposes,  will  also  give  one  a  better  comprehen- 
sion of  the  spirit  of  Scripture  poetry.  And  Christian 
hymns,  of  difierent  ages  and  nations,  exist  in  rich  abun- 
dance, suited  to  advance  personal  piety,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  improve  the  critical  appreciation  of  sacred  lyrics, 
so  that  we  may  become  able  to  select  wisely.  The  most 
valuable  of  these  are  the  Patristic  and  Mediaeval  Latin 
Hymns,  the  German  and  the  English  Hymns.  The  first 
are  often  disfigured  by  more  or  less  of  unsound  teaching, 

*  The  best  collection  easily  accessible  is  Percy's  Reliques,  which 
may  be  had  in  cheap  editions, 
f  Compare  Shedd,  p.  301-4. 
41* 


486  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP. 

many  of  them  being  addressed  to  the  Viij^in  Mary  or  the 
Saints ;  yet  even  these  have  much  that  is  of  great  value^ 
while  others,  including  some  of  the  very  finest,  are  almost 
entirely  free  from  objectionable  matter,  and  full  of  the 
noblest  poetical  and  devout  inspiration.'*'  The  German 
Hymns  began  to  be  composed  at  an  earlier  period,  and  are 
now  more  numerous  than  our  own  ;  and  many  of  them 
are  unsurpassed  for  rhythmical  movement,  and  devotional 
sweetness. t  English  Hymns  were  very  few  before  the 
time  of  Dr.  Watts,  early  in  the  last  century ;  but  to  the 
great  number  produced  by  him,  and  afterwards  by  Charles 
Wesley,  copious  additions  have  ever  since  continued  to  be 
made,  till  now  we  have  a  goodly  heritage.  All  the  recent 
hymn-books,  particularly  those  issued  by  Congregational- 
ists  and  by  Baptists,  are  rich  with  beautiful  and  blessed 
hymns,  though  usually  containing  some  that  could  be 
spared.  The  minister  ought,  by  all  means,  whatever  time 
and  pains  it  may  require,  to  make  himself  thoroughly 
familiar  with  his  Hymn-book,  in  order  to  prepare  him  for 
prompt  and  judicious  selection,  to  make  him  ready  in  that 
timely  quotation  from  hymns,  which  adds  more  in  preach- 
ing than  quotation  from  any  other  source  except  the  Bible, 
and  to  increase  his  personal  piety.  A  delightfiil  hour  may 
sometimes  be  spent  by  friends  in  discussing  the  Hymn- 
book,  comparing  favorite  hymns,  reading  specimens,  and 
thus  gaining  critical  knowledge,  at  the  same  time  with 
devotional  enjoyment  and  profit.  It  is  also  important  to 
examine  other  collections  than  our  own,  to  look  out  the 
original  form  of  hymns  from  the  older  writers  which  have 
been  altered,  and   others  Avhich   modern  works   omit,  as 

*  There  are  convenient  collections  by  Daniel  and  by  Mone,  and 
Trench  has  an  entertaining  little  volume  entitled  Sacred  Latin 
Poetry. 

t  Dr.  P.  Schaff  has  issued  a  German  Hymn-Book,  copious,  and  no 
doubt  the  result  of  careful  selection. 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP.  487 

Been  in  Watts  and  Kippon,  in  the  complete  Poetical 
Works  of  Charles  Wesley,  etc.  And  there  are  inferior 
collections,  containing  some  homely  pieces  which  Avould 
be  at  once  rejected  by  the  critics,  but  which  have  such 
power  with  the  people  as  to  provoke  inquiry,  and  often 
to  reward  it.  One  may  also  find  it  interesting  to  classify 
the  principal  writers  of  English  hymns,  according  to  the 
number  and  excellence  of  the  hymns  they  have  left  us. 
The  first  class  would  doubtless  contain  Watts  and  Charles 
Wesley ;  the  second  probably  Cowper,  Montgomery,  and 
Miss  Steel ;  the  third,  John  Newton,  Doddridge,  and 
Beddome;  and  then  there  would  be  a  numerous  class 
of  those  who  have  written  one  or  a  few  hymns  of  the 
highest  excellence.*  The  circumstances  connected  with 
the  original  production  of  a  hymn  are  sometimes  very 
interesting,  and  while  it  is  seldom  desirable  to  mention 
them  when  the  hymn  is  about  to  be  sung,  they  may 
sometimes  be  stated,  with  good  effect,  when  it  is  quoted  in 
a  sermon. 

The  properties  of  a  good  hymn  may  be  briefly  stated  as 
follows:  (1)  Correct  in  sentiment.  Its  general  doctrine 
should  be  sound,  which  is  not  quite  true  of  some  popular 
hymns  and  songs  and  choruses,t  and  all  its  particular  sen- 
timents should  be  just.  (2)  Devotional  in  its  spirit.  Some, 
even  of  Beddome's  hymns,  are  purely  didactic,  and  not 
warm  or  moving.  A  good  many  hymns  as  to  affliction, 
.and  as  to  heaven,  present  morbid  or  merely  fanciful  sen- 
timent, altogether  wanting  in  true  devotional  feeling. 
(3)  Poetical  in  imagery  and  diction.     Many  hymns  are 

*  Works  on  English  Hymns,  accessible  and  cheap,  are  those  of 
Belcher,  and  Christopher,  and  an  entertaining  work  entitled 
Evenings  with  the  Sacred  Poets. 

f  E.  g.  "I  want  to  be  an  angel."  Saved  human  beings  are  en- 
tirely distinct  from  angels,  and  occupy,  in  some  respects,  a  posi- 
tion of  higher  dignity. 


488  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP. 

only  metrical  prose,  without  any  touch  of  genuine  imagina- 
tion, and  sometimes  employing  words  that  are  alien  to  the 
very  genius  of  poetry.  But  a  song  which  is  not  really 
poetical,  lacks  a  vital  element  of  power.  Even  when  we 
chant  unmetrical  sentences,  they  must  always  be  poetical 
in  sentiment,  the  language  of  imagination  and  passion. 
(4)  Ehythmical,  being  correct  as  to  metre,  animated  and 
varied  in  movement,  and  yet  not  rugged  or  halting,  but 
truly  melodious.*  (5)  Symmetrical,  the  verses  exhibiting 
a  regular  progress  in  thought,  and  forming  a  complete 
and  harmonious  whole.  In  a  thoroughly  good  hymn  it 
would  not  be  possible  to  omit  any  verse,  without  destroy- 
ing the  sense.  Still,  there  are  many  useful  and  even 
delightful  hymns  in  which  this  is  not  the  case,  and  when 
the  exigencies  of  our  worship  require  the  omission  of  some 
verse  or  verses,  much  greater  care  should  be  taken  than  is 
sometimes  observed,  so  to  manage  the  omission  as  to  leave 
the  hymn  still  coherent  and  harmonious.f 

It  is  better  that  the  first  hymn  sung  should  not  relate 
to  the  precise  subject  of  the  sermon,  but  be  emphatically 
a  hymn  of  worship.  Especially  when  the  sermon  is  to  the 
unconverted,  must  it  be  out  of  place  to  begin  the  solemn 
worship  of  God  by  a  mere  metrical  exhortation  to  impeni- 
tent men.  Of  course  this  opening  hymn,  as  well  as  every 
otlier  part  of  the  worship,  should  have  a  general  harmony 
of  tone  with  all  that  is  to  follow.  The  hymn  immediately 
preceding  the  sermon  will  naturally  be  preparatory.  The 
last  hymn  will  apply  tlie  sermon,  or  express  the  senti- 
ments which  the  subject  presented  ought  to  excite,  or  form 
a  general  conclusion  to  the  services.  And  it  should  be 
constantly  borne  in  mind  that  specific  appropriateness  to 

*  See  below  as  to  rhythmical  pauses. 

t  Numerous  examples  of  faulty  hymns  which  it  would  be  instruc- 
tive to  examine,  (as  well  as  many  of  great  excellence,)  are  found  in 
the  Olney  Hymns  (John  Newton's  Works). 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC     WORSHIP.  489 

the  subject  of  the  sermon  is  far  less  important  in  a  hymn 
than  that  it  should  be  a  truly  good  hymn,  eminently  pleas- 
ing, impressive,  warm.  As  in  the  case  of  texts,  it  is  very 
unwise  to  avoid  the  familiar  hymns,  for  they  have  become 
familiar  because  they  are  singularly  good. 

2.  Why  should  we  read  hymns  at  all,  v;hen  they  are 
about  to  be  sung  ?  Not  only  because  many  present,  par- 
ticularly in  some  parts  of  the  country,  will  have  no  hymn- 
book,*  but  because  the  previous  reading  brings  the  mind 
into  a  certain  sympathy  with  the  sentiment,  so  that  we 
enter  into  it  more  fully  when  it  is  sung,  —  somewhat  for 
the  same  reason  that  makes  us  so  apt  to  ask  that  a  good 
song  may  be  repeated.  It  follows  that  the  reading  ought 
to  be  animated  and  sympathetic.  If  a  man  cannot,  or  will 
not  read  otherwise  than  in  a  dull,  languid,  monotonous 
fashion,  he  had  probably  better  omit  the  reading  altogether. 
True,  the  overdone,  oratorical  manner  of  reading  hymns  is 
extremely  objectionable.  There  should  be  no  effort,  noth- 
ing but  natural  feeling.  But  then  if  the  hymn  is  a  good 
one,  worthy  to  be  read  and  sung  at  all,  and  if  the  man 
knows  it  well,  from  general  acquaintance  or  from  thought- 
ful reading  not  long  before,  it  will  not  be  natural  to  read 
it  otherwise  than  with  life  and  warmth.  To  read  in  a  calm 
and  perfectly  quiet  manner,  the  words 

"Jesus!  I  love  thy  charming  name, 
'  T  is  music  to  mine  ear," 

would  be,  for  a  truly  devout  man,  well-nigh  impossible. 

*  For  the  same  reason  it  is  still  proper,  in  some  places,  as  it  was 
once  very  common,  to  "give  out''  the  hymn,  two  lines  at  a  time. 
Alas  !  there  are  not  a  few  localities  in  which  many  white  as  well 
as  colored  people  cannot  read,  and  giving  out  is  a  great  comfort  to 
them.  Better  annoy  the  chief  singers  a  little,  than  despise  our 
weak  brethren,  and  rob  them  of  a  share  in  this  delightful  part  of 
the  worship. 


490  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP. 

In  fact,  as  to  all  expression  of  feeling,  cultivated  people 
are  more  apt  fastidiously  to  shrink  back,  than  to  transcend 
the  limits  of  propriety. 

Similar  considerations  will  show  that  the  rhythm  of  hymns 
must  never  be  disregarded.  The  sing-song  fashion  of  read 
ing  verse,  often  observed  in  ignorant  men,  and  the  monot- 
onous inflections,  regularly  reproduced  at  the  end  of  the 
first,  second,  third  and  fourth  lines  by  many  educated  men, 
are  one  evil ;  but  it  is  going  grievously  to  the  other  ex- 
treme if  a  man  attempts,  as  some  actually  avow,  to  read 
verse  as  if  it  were  prose.  The  sense  is  predominant ;  but 
to  neglect  the  rhythm  is  both  to  lose  part  of  the  beauty 
and  impressiveness  of  the  hymn,  and  to  offend  by  the  con- 
spicuous absence  of  what  is  naturally  expected  and  de- 
manded. Especially  must  we  observe  the  rhythmical 
pause  at  the  end  of  every  line  ;  not  letting  the  voice  drop, 
nor  take  the  falling  inflection,  unless  the  sense  so  requires ; 
but  even  where  the  sense  goes  right  on,  we  should  make  a 
slight  pause,  with  the  voice  suspended,  in  recognition  of 
the  rhythmical  close.  In  all  lines  of  any  considerable 
length,  there  is  also  an  equally  important  pause  somewhere 
about  tlie  middle  of  the  line,  the  varied  position  of  which 
greatly  contributes  to  the  rhythmical  effect.  Those  who 
have  not  studied  the  classic  caesura,  may,  without  embar- 
rassing themselves  with  technicalities,  easily  learn  to  per- 
ceive the  position  of  this  pause,  by  privately  reading  many 
lines  with  a  view  to  it,  especially  by  exaggerating,  at  first, 
the  rhythmical  movement,  making  even  a  sing-song.  Some- 
times there  are  two  such  pauses,  one  near  the  beginning, 
the  other  towards  the  end,  of  the  line.  These  rhythmical 
pauses  are  too  often  neglected,  though  a  man  of  good  ear 
for  music  will  frequently  observe  them  unconsciously. 
And  yet  they  may  be  mastered  with  comparative  ease.'*' 

*  Many  good  examples  are  given  in  the  Appendix  to  Lord's  Laws 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP.  491 

Not  a  little  may  also  be  gained  from  the  study  of 
English  metres,  particularly  those  common  in  hymns.  A 
man's  ear  may  for  the  most  part  carry  him  through,  but  it 
must  often  fail.  There  are  exceedingly  few  persons  who 
read  verse  without  frequent  faults,  unless  they  have  at- 
tended to  its  metrical  structure.  The  task  of  learning 
the  metres  of  our  hymns  is  not  difficult,*  and  to  classify 
them  into  the  somewhat  numerous  varieties  of  Iambic, 
Trochaic,  (with  combinations  of  the  two,)  Anapaestic,  and 
(in  a  few  specimens)  Dactylic  verse,  will  be  to  some  per- 
sons a  pleasant  amusement,  by  no  means  devoid  of  profit. 
It  is  in  reading  Anapaestic  hymns,  many  of  which  are  ex- 
tremely beautiful,  that  faults  are  most  frequently  observed. 

It  will  of  course  greatly  increase  a  man's  skill  in  reading 
hymns,  and  will  especially  serve  to  correct  a  tendency  to 
be  dolorous  or  monotonous,  if  he  will  often  read  aloud  from 
secular  verse.  It  would  help  many  a  preacher  with  his 
Common  Metre  hymns,  now  and  then  to  read  to  some 
friends,  with  full  life  and  spirit,  Cowper's  John  Gilpin. 

It  is  curious  to  see  how  old  customs  are  maintained,  after 
the  occasion  for  them  has  ceased  to  exist.  When  even  the 
leader  of  the  singing  had  no  hymn-book,  it  was  necessary 
to  announce  beforehand  the  metre  of  the  hymn ;  and  this 
is  still  regularly  and  most  formally  done  by  many  Baptist 
and  Methodist  ministers,  where  there  is  no  possible  need 
for  it.  So  in  "  giving  out,"  the  minister  would,  after  read- 
ing over  the  hymn,  then  read  the  first  two  lines,  to  be 

of  Figurative  Language,  and  in  Russell's  Pulpit  Elocution.  There 
is  also  a  good  discussion,  chiefly  with  reference  to  heroic  verse,  in 
Kames'  Elements  of  Criticism. 

*  They  may  be  studied  with  advantage  in  Angus'  Hand-book  of 
the  English  Tongue,  Quackenbos'  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  and  to 
some  extent  in  almost  any  treatise  on  Composition  or  on  Grammar. 
There  ia  also  a  book  on  English  Metres,  (or  some  such  title,)  by 
Everett. 


492  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP. 

sung ;  and  ^vhere  giving  out  has  long  been  abandoned, 
often  still  the  minister  will  repeat  the  first  two  lines  in  the 
same  way.  If  it  is  desired  to  revive  the  impression  of  the 
opening  words,  this  is  lawful,  but  will  frequently  be  better 
accomplished  by  reading  again  simply  the  first  line,  or  in 
other  cases  the  whole  verse. 

3.  With  reference  to  the  music  of  hymns,  it  is  proper 
here  to  make  only  a  brief  remark.  The  superiority  of  con- 
gregational singing  is  beyond  question.  Yet  it  seems  gen- 
erally necessary  to  have  a  choir,  whose  proper  function  is 
to  lead  the  singing  of  the  congregation,  but  whose  well- 
known  tendency  is  to  usurp  the  whole.  Hence  result  great 
evils,  sadly  familiar  to  us  all.  Now  the  preacher  is  the 
proper  mediator  between  choir  and  congregation.  If  a 
lover  of  music,  especially  if  able  to  sing  well  by  note,  he 
may  keep  the  sympathies  of  the  choir,  and  may  induce 
them,  not  by  public  but  private  requests,  to  sing  for  the 
most  pfirt  familiar  tunes ;  and  then  an  occasional  public 
and  private  exhortation  to  the  people,  to  take  part  in  the 
singing,  will  effect  the  best  arrangement  that  is  usually 
practicable.  Friendly  conference  w^ith  the  leader  of  the 
singing  might  also  secure  a  better  adaptation  of  tune  to 
hymn  than  is  often  observed. 

§3.      PUBLIC   PRAYER.* 

The  prayers  form  the  most  important  part  of  public 
W'orship.  He  who  leads  a  great  congregation  in  prayer, 
who  undertakes  to  express  what  they  feel,  or  ought  to  feel, 
before  God,  to  give  utterance  to  their  adoration,  confession, 
supplication,  assumes  a  very  heavy  responsibility.  We 
all  readily  agree,  and  sometimes  partially  realize,  that  it  is 

*  See  on  this  subject,  besides  the  German  writers  and  Hoppin, 
Porter's  Homiletics,  Dahney's  Sac.  Rhet.  (Richmond,  1870),  and 
Miller's  Volume  on  Public  Prayer. 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP.  493 

a  solemn  thing  to  speak  to  the  people  for  God ;  is  it  less  so 
when  we  speak  to  God  for  the  people  ?  Whatever  prep- 
aration is  possible  for  performing  this  duty,  ought  surely 
to  be  most  carefully  made.  And  yet,  while  very  few  now 
question  the  propriety  of  preparation,  both  general  and 
special,  for  the  work  of  preaching,  it  is  feared  the  great 
majority  still  utterly  neglect  to  prepare  themselves  for  the 
conduct  of  public  prayer. 

The  general  preparation  for  leading  in  public  prayer  con- 
sists chiefly  in  the  following  things  :  (1)  Fervent  piety. 
This  will  include  the  habit  of  praying  in  private,  and  in 
social  meetings.  If  it  be  true  that  "  the  only  way  to  learn 
to  preach  is  to  preach,"  it  is  still  more  emphatically  true 
that  the  only  way  to  learn  to  pray  is  to  pray.  And  while 
some  do  tolerate  preaching  for  practice,  all  will  utterly 
condemn  praying  for  practice.  It  is  thus  plain  that  no 
one  will  regularly  pray  well  in  public,  who  does  not  pray 
much  and  devoutly  in  private.  Along  with  this  it  may  be 
observed,  that  in  every  attempt  to  pray,  under  whatever 
circumstances,  one  should  earnestly  endeavor  to  realize  what 
he  is  doing.  (2)  Familiarity  with  Scripture,  both  as  fur- 
nishing topics  of  prayer,  and  supplying  the  most  appro- 
priate and  affecting  language  of  prayer.  The  minister 
should  be  constantly  storing  in  his  memory  the  more 
directly  devotional  expressions  found  everywhere  in  the 
Bible,  and  especially  in  the  Psalms  and  Prophets,  the  Gos- 
pels, Epistles  and  Revelation.  Perhaps  a  few  men  err,  in 
making  their  prayers  consist  of  an  almost  uninterrupted 
succession  of  long  quotations ;  but  this  is  uncommon,  and 
most  of  us  greatly  need  in  our  prayers  a  larger  and  more 
•varied  infusion  of  Scripture  language.  (3)  Study  of  in- 
structive specimens  of  prayer.  In  the  Bible  there  are 
found,  besides  the  numerous  single  devotional  expressions, 
various  striking  examples  of  connected  and  complete 
prayers,  and  very  many  instances  in  which  the  substance 
42 


494  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WOKSHIP. 

of  a  prayer  is  given  though  not  the  form.  These  ought  to 
be  carefully  studied,  for  instruction  in  the  matter  and  the 
manner  of  praying.  Some  of  the  long-established  liturgies 
are  also  very  instructive.  However  earnestly  we  may 
oppose  the  imposition  of  any  form  of  prayer,  there  is  cer- 
tainly much  to  be  learned  from  studying  forms  prepared 
with  the  greatest  care,  and  in  most  cases  by  very  able  and 
very  devout  men.  More  modern  works,  as  collections  of 
prayers,  and  those  recorded  in  diaries,  will  also  repay 
occasional  examination.  In  all  such  study  of  prayers, 
great  pains  must  be  taken  not  to  lose  the  devotional  in  the 
merely  critical  spirit. 

The  special  preparation  which  ought  to  be  made  for 
prayer  on  any  given  occasion,  may  be  best  understood  by 
considering  public  prayer  as  to  its  matter,  arrangement,  lan- 
guage, and  utterance.* 

1.  As  to  the  matter,  prayers  will  be  very  general  and 
comprehensive,  or  very  specific,  according  to  circumstances. 
The  simple  and  wonderfully  comprehensive  prayer  given 
by  our  Lord  as  a  model  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and 
afterwards  repeated  in  a  much  shortened  forra,t  which  is 
commonly  called  the  Lord's  Prayer,  is  a  specimen  of  the 
former  kind,  while  to  the  latter  belongs  the  prayer  in  the 
17th  chapter  of  John.  In  both  directions  we  often  witness 
grave  errors.     Some  prayers  are  so  general  as  to  include 

*  It  will  be  s^en  that  these  divisions  correspond  to  the  four  lead- 
ing parts  of  the  present  work,  ns  a  treatise  on  Preaching.  A  friend 
suggests  that  an  Essay  might  he  appropriately  written  on  what 
should  be  styled  "  The  Homiletics  of  Public  Prayer." 

f  See  any  of  the  recently  revised  texts,  in  Greek  or  English.  The 
omission  of  several  important  clauses  on  this  second  occasion  (Luke 
31  :  2-4,)  and  the  alteration  of  some  expressions,  prove  conclu- 
sively that  this  was  not  meant  b}'  our  Lord  as  a  form  of  prayer,  for 
on  that  supposition  we  should  have  him  failing  to  repeat  the  form 
correctly.  Notice  how  much  is  omitted  in  the  corrected  text  of 
Luke. 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP.  495 

almost  everything,  and  thus  to  have  no  point.  A  prayer 
ought  never  to  be  indefinite  and  straggling,  but  should 
always  have  certain  well-defined  topics  ;  and  these  should, 
when  practicable,  be  determined  beforehand.  Other  per- 
sons enter  into  such  minute  details  as  to  be  inconsistent 
with  the  character  of  a  prayer  suited  to  a  whole  assembly, 
and  sometimes  to  be  indecorous. 

Too  many  persons  wholly  omit,  in  public  prayer,  or 
mention  only  in  a  few  conventional  phrases  before  closing, 
those  great  subjects  of  supplication  which  lie  apart  from 
their  own  immediate  concerns.  Yet  in  the  "Lord's 
Prayer"  these  subjects  occupy  half  the  space,  and  the  first 
half.  Prayer  for  Missions,  at  home  and  abroad,  for  the 
increase  of  laborers,  for  Sunday-schools,  and  other  such 
objects,  ought  frequently  to  occur  —  sometimes  one  of  them 
being  dwelt  on,  and  sometimes  another. 

It  is  often  and  justly  urged  that  we  must  not,  in  praying, 
undertake  to  instruct  God.  Yet  this  idea  must  not  be  car- 
ried too  far.  Our  Lord,  in  the  prayer  of  John  17,  states 
what  he  has  been  doing,  and  explains  how  eternal  life  is 
attained.  It  is  therefore  proper  sometimes  to  recite  occur- 
rences, or  make  statements,  provided  they  become  the  occa- 
sion of  thanksgiving  or  petition.  Again,  prayer  must  not 
be  used  as  a  medium  for  exhorting  the  people,  as  is  often 
half  unconsciously  done.  Nor  must  it  contain  compli- 
mentary allusions.  To  pray  for  another  minister  present, 
with  elaborate  compliment,  is  a  sadly  frequent,  and  grossly 
improper  practice.  Robert  Hall  erred  in  praying  too  often 
for  distinguished  persons  present.  So  with  allusions  to 
"  this  large  and  intelligent  congregation."  Of  course  there 
may  be  prayer  for  particular  classes  of  persons,  and  some- 
times for  individuals ;  but  no  compliments.  Allusions  to 
political  questions,  or  any  matters  which  are  occasioning 
strife  in  the  community,  can  be  justified  only  by  peculiar 
circumstances  and  mode  of  handling. 


496  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP. 

Special  pains  should  be  taken  to  give  to  public  prayei 
the  requisite  variety  —  in  topics,  as  well  as  in  order. 
Many  preachers  pray  uniformly  for  the  same  objects,  and 
where  they  also  follow  a  fixed  order,  and  use  many  stereo- 
typed phrases,  it  becomes  pretty  much  a  form  of  prayer, 
without  the  advantage  of  having  been  eminently  well  pre- 
pared. Much  may  be  done  towards  securing  variety  by 
inquiring  beforehand  what  petitions  would  be  suggested  by 
the  occasion,  or  by  the  subject  of  the  sermon,  or  by  the 
passage  of  Scripture  just  read,  or  the  hymn  which  has  been 
sung.  Of  the  topics  which  must  of  necessity  be  frequently 
introduced,  some  may  be  elaborated  on  one  occasion,  and 
some  on  another.  In  these,  and  many  such  ways,  variety 
may  be  gained.  Of  course  there  should  be  no  straining 
after  it,  nor  any  elaborateness  in  the  prayer,  of  whatsoever 
kind. 

Any  attempt  to  catalogue  or  classify  the  materials  of 
prayer  would  be  here  inappropriate. 

2.  The  arrangement  of  prayer  must  not  be  formal,  but 
there  should  always  be  a  real  order.  It  is  not  necessary, 
if  desirable,  that  this  should  descend  to  details.  The  lead- 
ing topics  must  not  only  be  chosen,  as  we  have  seen,  but 
arranged  in  the  mind  beforehand.  All  the  arguments  we 
have  urged  in  favor  of  arrangement  in  preaching,  apply, 
more  or  less,  to  order  in  prayer.* 

The  order  which  seems  to  be  usually  thought  most 
appropriate,  may  be  stated  as  follows :  (1)  Invocation, 
adoration,  thanksgiving.  (2)  Confession,  and  prayer  for 
forgiveness.  (3)  Renewed  dedication,  and  prayer  for  help. 
(4)  Intercession,  for  all  general  or  special  objects.  Begin- 
ning with  the  thought  of  God's  character  and  mercies,  we 
are  naturally  led  to  think  next  of  our  own  sins  ;  and  hence 
the  order  named.  But  adoration  may  also  naturally  be 
followed  by  prayer  that  God  may  be  known  and  adored 
*See  Part  II,  chap.  1. 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP.  497 

'  over  all  the  earth,  (see  the  Lord's  Prayer,)  and  reference 
to  ourselves,  Avhether  thanksgiving  or  supplication,  be  in- 
troduced afterwards.  Or  the  very  first  words,  after  ad- 
dressing God,  may  be  a  confession  of  sin,  and  a  cry  for 
mercy.  Moreover,  something  peculiar  in  the  occasion, 
something  known  to  be  pressing  upon  the  hearts  of  the 
worshippers,  may  demand  a  great  departure  from  the  usual 
order,  as  well  as  the  usual  selection,  of  topics.  We  must 
avoid  the  two  extremes,  of  wandering  hither  and  thither, 
and  of  stiff,  formal,  unchangeable  order.  Within  these 
limits,  one  may  be  guided  by  judgment  and  taste,  by  feel- 
ing and  the  occasion.* 

3.  The  language  of  prayer  must,  of  course,  be  gramma- 
tical, and  free  from  all  vulgarisms  and  oddities.  It  should 
be  thoroughly  simple,  —  not  low  and  coarse,  but  not 
learned  or  inflated.  We  must  avoid  elaborateness,  and 
prettiness,  which  is  extremely  offensive  to  good  taste  and 
painful  to  truly  devout  feeling,  but  must  not  avoid,  when 
deeply  affected,  the  natural  language  of  emotion,  which  is 
apt  to  be  figurative,  and  sometimes  very  highly  figurative. 
Where  this  is  really  natural,  it  will  never  strike  one  as 
finery.  It  is  one  of  the  poorest  compliments  that  can  be 
paid  a  man  to  say,  that  he  made  an  "  eloquent "  prayer  ; 
earnest,  fervent,  solemn,  dfieply  impressive  —  such  are  the 
terms  to  be  desired,  if  indeed  a  prayer  is  complimented  at  all. 

Almost  all  who  lead  in  prayer  come  to  have  pet  phrases, 
whether  they  were  originally  imitated,  or  have  only  grown 
habitual.  It  is  very  well  that  the  prayer  of  another  should 
suggest  to  us  topics  or  sentiments  we  had  never  introduced, 
but  to  borrow  phrases  in  prayer  is  in  wretched  taste,  and 
even  unconscious  borrowing  should  by  every  possible 
means  be  avoided.  Yet  one  hears  certain  favorite  phrases 
all  over  the  country,  which  must  have  been  adopted  by 
imitation.     Sometimes  they  involve  an  image,  as,  "  Stop 

*  As  to  tlie  length  of  prayers,  see  below,  §  4. 
42* 


498  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP. 

them  in  their  mad  career ; "  or  an  alliteration,  as,  "  Choose 
all  our  changes  for  us,"  "  Touch  and  tender  their  hearts  " 
(which  is  bad  English) ;  or  a  big  word,  instead  of  homely 
Saxon,  as,  "And  ultimately  save  us,"  where  "at  last" 
would  be  simpler  and  better.  Examples  cannot  be  multi- 
plied, though  the  evil  is  extremely  common,  and  very 
hurtful.  The  use  of  such  phrases  seems  to  show  that  the 
mind  is  occupied  with  the  mere  externals  of  prayer,  instead 
of  being  engrossed  with  devout  feeling.  Even  where  ex- 
pressions are  not  borrowed,  but  have  merely  become  habit- 
ual, their  too  frequent  recurrence  is  still  more  objectionable 
in  prayer  than  in  preaching. 

Many  are  constantly  repeating  Oh  !  and  Ah  !  or  O  Lord  ! 
or  "We  pray  thee,"  "  We  beseech  thee,"  and  the  like. 

Familiar  language,  such  as  the  mystics  use,  "  my  Jesus," 
"  sweet  Lord,"  had  better  be  avoided. 

The  phrases  used  in  addressing  God  will  naturally  be 
chosen  with  some  reference  to  the  connection.  Thus  our 
Lord  says,  "  I  thank  thee,  O  Father,  Lord  of  heaven  and 
earth,  that  thou  hast  hid  these  things,"  etc.  It  is  an  act 
of  sovereignty.  "  Shall  not  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  do 
right?"  is  natural,  rather  than,  "Shall  not  the  Almighty 
[the  All-wise,  or  the  merciful  God]  do  right  ?  " 

In  employing  the  language «  of  Scripture,  as  already 
recommended,  it  is  quite  important  to  quote  correctly  ;  and 
it  is  curious  to  observe  the  incorrect  quotations  which  are 
heard  in  widely  distant  States,  showing  that  they  have  been 
learned  by  oral  tradition.  "  Where  two  or  three  ....  there 
am  I  in  the  midst  of  them,  and  that  to  bless  them."  The 
w^ords  in  italics  are  an  addition.  "Thou  canst  not  look 
upon  sin  with  the  least  degree  of  allowance"  spoils  a  forci- 
ble and  beautiful  image.  "  That  the  word  of  the  Lord  may 
have  free  course,  run,  and  be  glorified,"  adds  from  the  mar- 
gin the  word  "  run,"  there  suggested  as  a  possible  substitute 
for  "  have  free  course."     "  The  Lamb  of  God,  that  taketh 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP.  499 

away  the  sins  of  the  world,"  is  a  curious  change  from 
"sin." 

4.  The  utterance  of  prayer  "should  be  softer,  more  level, 
....  less   vehement,  more   subdued.     Every  tone   should 

breathe  tenderness  and  supplication It  is  difficult 

to  say  which  is  most  unsuitable  to  this  sacred  exercise  — 
a  hurried,  perfunctory  utterance,  as  of  one  who  reads  some 
tiresome  or  trivial  matter,  a  violent  and  declamatory  man- 
ner, as  though  one  had  ventured  upon  objurgation  of  his 
Maker,  or  a  headlong  and  confused  enunciation."  * 

The  utterance  must  by  all  means  be  distinct  —  not  bois- 
terous, but  perfectly  audible  throughout  the  room.  It  is 
very  painful,  and  somewhat  common,  to  be  unable  to  hear. 
As  to  the  precise  tones  to  be  employed,  let  one  strive  to 
realize  what  he  is  doing,  and  then  speak  simply  as  he  feels, 
unless  he  becomes  conscious  of  special  faults.  Some  men 
are  given  to  the  use  of  a  lugubrious  tone,  which  does  not 
belong  to  the  natural  language  of  penitence  and  love,  and 
is  sometimes  ridiculous.  The  tone  should,  of  course,  be 
solemn  and  reverential,  rather  than  familiar,  but  that  does 
not  require  it  to  be  "  mournful." 

We  must  also  avoid  contortions  of  countenance,  and 
tricks  of  posture  and  gesture,  which  there  will  always  be 
some  persons  to  notice. 

§  4.       LENGTH    OF   THE   SERVICES. 

The  proper  length  will  depend  very  much  upon  circum- 
stances. Two  centuries  ago  it  was  not  uncommon,  both  in 
the  Church  of  England  and  among  Dissenters,  to  occupy 
from  three  to  six  hours.  At  present  there  is  in  many  quar- 
ters a  great  impatience  of  long  services,  which  should  be 
neither  yielded  to  nor  disregarded.  In  the  country,  where 
people  ride  or  walk  some  distance,  and  have  but  one  ser- 

*Dabney,  Sac.  Rhetoric,  p.  358. 


500  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP. 

vice  a  day,  it  may  be  much  longer  than  in  town.  When 
some  particular  occasion  demands  unusual  length,  and  will 
make  the  services  interesting  throughout,  they  may  be 
prolonged  beyond  the  usual  time.  In  general,  while  the 
customs  of  the  place  and  the  known  preferences  of  the  con- 
gregation are  to  be  consulted,  we  must  not  allow  them  to 
bind  us  with  iron  fetters.  There  should  be  freedom,  and 
some  variety,  so  as  to  withstand  the  perpetual  tendency  to 
gravitate  into  formalism.  Many  persons  regard  custom  as 
a  sort  of  common  law,  more  binding  than  an  authoritative 
form  of  worship.  Against  this  the  minister  may  practically 
protest  by  such  occasional  variations  as  seem  appropriate, 
taking  care  not  to  shock  by  abrupt  or  singular  changes. 
There  can  be  little  of  free,  spontaneous  life,  where  it  is 
cramped  by  unvarying  forms,  whether  they  be  fixed  by 
statute  or  by  custom.  But  innovation  merely  for  the  sake 
of  novelty,  is  worse  than  useless. 

As  to  the  length  of  a  sermon,  it  would  be  well  for  a  pas- 
tor to  get  it  understood  that  he  may  sometimes  make  the 
sermon  very  short,  and  sometimes  quite  long.  There  are 
subjects  which  can  be  made  very  interesting  and  instructive 
for  twenty  minutes,  but  to  occupy  thirty  or  forty  minutes 
it  would  be  necessary  to  introduce  matter  really  foreign 
and  calculated  to  lessen  the  effect,  or  so  to  hammer  out  the 
style  as  to  make  it  less  impressive.  Many  a  preacher  has 
thought  of  subjects  or  texts  of  precisely  this  description, 
and  has  been  compelled  either  to  abandon  them,  or  to  spoil 
them  in  one  of  the  ways  indicated.  Why  not  occasionally 
preach  a  very  short  sermon,  of  twenty,  or  even  of  fifteen 
minutes  ?  In  that  case,  if  circumstances  warrant,  the  other 
services  might,  without  remark,  be  made  longer  than  usual, 
pains  being  taken  to  render  them  interesting  and  impres- 
sive. On  the  other  hand,  there  are  subjects  which  impera- 
tively demand  an  extended  treatment,  and  cannot  well  be 
divided ;  and  the  preacher,  especially  when  at  home,  ought 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP.  501 

to  feel  at  liberty  to  occupy  a  full  hour,  or  in  rare  cases  even 
more,  provided  lie  is  sure  the  sermon  will  have  such  a  vari- 
ety of  distinct  points,  such  stirring  movement  from  begin- 
ning to  end,  and  such  sustained  energy  of  delivery,  as  will 
keep  the  people  interested  in  a  high  degree.  Within  these 
limits,  the  proper  average  in  towns,  will  probably  be  from 
thirty  to  forty-five  minutes,  the  former  being  best  where 
the  habitual  mode  of  treating  a  subject  is  condensed  and 
concentrated,  the  latter  where  it  is  more  discursive  and 
varied.  It  is  obvious  that  much  depends  on  the  mode  of 
treatment.  A  long  sermon  may  seem  short,  a  short  one 
maybe  "tedious -brief,"  like  the  scene  of  Pyramus  and 
Thisbe. 

^  The  prayers  are  very  commonly  made  too  long.  The 
people  cannot  avoid  becoming  weary.  It  would  be  better 
\o  have  a  greater  number  of  prayers  during  the  service, 
and  have  them  shorter.  In  general,  there  may  be  three 
prayers,  but  varying  in  length  according  to  circumstances. 
The  invocation,  which  opens  the  services  —  following  the 
voluntary  anthem  from  the  choir  or  voluntary  hymn  from 
the  congregation  —  is  usually  and  properly  short,  but  might 
sometimes  be  made  longer  upon  occasion.  The  principal 
prayer,  which  is  followed  by  the  sermon,  is  especially  liable 
to  become  too  long.  The  last  prayer,  after  the  sermon, 
ought  to  vary  widely  in  length.  If  the  preacher,  or  some 
other  who  is  called  on,  feels  deeply  moved,  and  if  the  ser- 
vices have  not  been  unusually  long,  this  prayer  may  be 
considerably  extended.  If  not,  it  should  be  short,  some- 
times very  short.  Even  where  the  sermon  has  made  a  great 
impression,  the  particular  character  of  that  impression  and 
of  the  subject  must  determine  whether  it  had  better  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  long  prayer  or  a  short  one.  It  is  sometimes 
well  to  let  a  hymn  follow  the  sermon,  and  then  close  with  a 
benediction.  Or,  without  a  hymn,  the  benediction  may 
follow  at  once.     In  either  case  the  benediction,  which  ia 


502  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP. 

notliing  but  a  short  prayer,  may  be  preceded  by  a  few  sen 
tences  of  other  prayer,  appropriate  to  the  subject  which  has 
been  presented. 

In  general,  as  has  been  intimated,  the  different  parts  of 
the  service,  reading  Scri^Dture,  singing,  preaching,  prayer, 
should  vary  in  length  according  to  circumstances,  one  part 
being  made  longer  when  another  is  shorter,  with  no  strain- 
ing after  sensational  novelty,  but  with  the  variety  which 
unrestricted  feeling  naturally  prompts. 

§  5.      PULPIT    DECORUM. 

It  is  wonderful  how  much  harm  is  sometimes  done  by 
trifling  acts  of  indecorum  in  the  pulpit.  If  the  preacher, 
especially  a  young  man,  is  seen  arranging  his  hair  or  his 
neck-tie,  it  will  utterly  prejudice  some  persons  against  his 
sermon.  If  his  dress  is  slovenly,  or  showy,  it  will  have  a 
similar  effect.  If  he  is  seen  or  heard  taking  a  chew  of 
tobacco,  or  even  a  glass  of  water,  while  another  prays  after 
his  sermon,  or  hunting  up  hymns  while  another  prays 
before  it,  we  can  hardly  wonder  that  people  are  offended. 
Two  ministers  should  not  talk  together  during  the  singing, 
unless  there  is  peculiar  occasion  for  it.  To  look  about 
carelessly  before  beginning  the  services,  betokens  a  mind 
little  occupied  with  sacred  things.  Yet  it  is  far  from 
desirable  to  substitute  an  elaborate  solemnity  of  air.  And 
the  practice  of  kneeling  upon  entering  the  pulpit,  is  of  very 
doubtful  propriety.  The  preacher  ought  to  pray  before 
beginning  his  solemn  duties,  but  had  he  not  better  offer  his 
prayer  in  private  than  in  public? 

The  following  picture  has  become  famous : 

♦'Would  I  describe  a  preacher,  such  as  Paul, 
Were  he  on  earth,  would  hear,  approve,  and  own  — 
Paul  should  himself  rlirect  me.     I  would  trace 


CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WOESHIP.  503 

His  master  strokes,  and  draw  from  his  design. 

I  would  express  him  simple,  grave,   sincere : 

In  doctrine  uncorrupt:  in  language  plain, 

And  plain  in  manner;  decent,  solemn,  chaste, 

And  natural  in  gesture;   much  impressed 

Himself,  as  conscious  of  his  awful  charge, 

And  anxious  mainly  that  the  flock  he  feeds 

May  feel  it  too ;    affectionate  in  look 

And  tender  in  address,  as  well  becomes 

A  messenger  of  grace  to  guilty  men. 

Behold  the  picture.     Is  it  like  ?     Like  whom  ? 

The  things  that  mount  the  rostrum  with  a  skip 

And  then  skip  down  again ;  pronounce  a  text ; 

Cry — hem;   and  reading  what  they  never  wrote, 

Just  fifteen  minutes,  huddle  up  their  work. 

And  with  a  well-bred  whisper  close  the  scene !  "  * 

A  preacher  should  never  exhibit  irritation  at  inatten- 
tion, or  even  at  misconduct,  in  the  audience.  When  it  is 
really  necessary  to  rebuke,  and  to  rebuke  sharply,  it  ought 
to  be  manifest  that  he  is  not  resenting  a  personal  slight, 
but  aflfected  by  higher  motives.  And  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases,  public  rebukes  are  better  omitted.  They  often 
give  offence,  and  the  good  they  do  might  usually  be  reached 
in  some  other  way.  A  kind,  but  decided  word  in  private 
is  commonly  much  better.  Few  preachers  have  ever  had 
occasion  to  regret  that  they  had  been  silent,  when  moved 
to  public  rebuke ;  many  have  regretted  that  they  spoke. 

There  should  be  nothing  self-important,  or  formal,  in  the 
preacher's  manner.  It  is  generally  better  to  say  "  I  "  than 
to  use  the  royal  "  we,"  the  plural  of  majesty.  There  may 
be  more  egotism  in  the  latter  case  than  the  former.  To 
avoid  the  too  frequent  recurrence  of  the  first  person  singu- 
lar, the  preacher  may  often  associate  himself  with  the 
hearers,  and  then  say  "  we." 

After  great  excitement,  in  the  pulpit  or  elsewhere,  there 

*  Cowper  on  Pulpit  Proprieties.     Comp.  Kidder,  Hom.  p.  378  flF, 


504  CONDUCT    OF    PUBLIC    WOKSHIP. 

is  apt  to  be  a  corresponding  reaction.  But  many  persons 
fail  to  understand  how  a  man  who  was  so  solemn  during 
the  sermon,  is  now  so  light.  Men  of  excitable  nature 
should  avoid  exhibiting  the  effect  of  this  reaction.  How 
foolish  soever  people  may  be  in  criticizing  trifles,  we  must 
not  leave  them,  as  to  such  minor  matters,  an  excuse  for 
finding  fault. 

§    6.       CONCLUDING    REMARKS. 

After  all  our  preparation,  general  and  special,  for  the 
conduct  of  public  worship  and  for  preaching,  our  depend- 
ence for  real  success  is  on  the  Spirit  of  God.  And  where 
one  preaches  the  gospel,  in  reliance  on  God's  blessing,  he 
never  preaches  in  vain.  The  sermon  meant  for  the  uncon- 
verted may  greatly  benefit  believers,  and  vice  versa.  With- 
out the  slightest  manifest  result  at  present,  a  sermon  may 
be  heard  from  long  afterwards ;  perhaps  only  in  eternity. 
And  the  most  wretched  failure,  seeming  utterly  useless, 
may  benefit  the  preacher  himself,  and  through  him,  all 
who  afterwards  hear  him.  Thus  we  partially  see  how  it 
is  that  God's  Word  always  does  good,  always  prospers  in 
the  thing  whereto  he  sent  it. 

Nor  must  we  ever  forget  the  power  of  character  and  life 
to  reinforce  speech.  What  a  preacher  is,  goes  far  to  deter- 
mine the  effect  of  what  he  says.  There  is  a  mediaeval 
proverb,  Cnjus  vita  fulgor,  ejus  verba  tonitrua.  If  a  man's 
life  be  lightning,  his  words  are  thunders. 


INDEX, 


A     TION,  in  delivery,  464 ;  in  children,  468 ;  in  men  of  diflFerent 

-tl      nations,  468;  rules  of,  474. 

Affectation,  to  be  avoided,  449. 

Alexander,  J.  W.,  Thoughts  on  Preaching,  35;  striking  remark  of, 
47;  on  speciality  in  subject,  90;  pointed  saying  of,  130;  on 
divisions,  265 ;  on  expository  preaching,  442,  note. 

Amusements,  how  to  preach  on,  104. 

Analogy,  defined,  189  ;  metaphors  rest  on,  191 ;  argument  from,  191 ; 
use  of,  192. 

Analogy  of  faith,  85,  note. 

Analysis,  a  tremendous,  269,  note. 

Anecdotes,  use  of,  in  preaching,  224. 

Anglo-Saxon  words,  observations  on,  345;  relative  force  of,  362. 

Announcements  peculiarities,  in  making,  476. 

Antithesis,  use  of,  367. 

Apologetics,  definition  of,  93. 

Apologies,  252. 

Apostrophe,  376. 

Application,  230;  persuasion  a  chief  part  of,  232;  part  of  conclu- 
sion, 280. 

A  priori,  definition  of,  174;   Kant's  use  of,  178. 

Argument,  use  of,  158;  men  fond  of,  159;  preliminaries  to,  162; 
varieties  of,  173-198;  order  of,  206;  general  suggestions  as  to, 
210-213  ;  not  to  be  multiplied,  212. 

Argumentum  ad  hominem,  197,  202. 

Aristotle,  on  induction,  188;   quoted,  210;  on  style,  321,  356,  380. 

Art  and  literature,  study  of,  402. 

Artificiality,  28 ;  danger  of,  29. 

Athenians,  their  estimate  of  oratory,  448. 

43  505 


606  INDEX. 

Augustine  quoted,  20 ;   on  study  of  models,  333. 
Authority  and  testimony  distinguished,  180 ;  of  the  Fathers,  184 ; 
of  the  Scriptures,  185. 

BARROW,  his  analysis,  268. 
Beecher,  H.  W.,  source  of  his  illustrations,  218. 
Belief  and  disbelief,  185. 
Bible,  division  of,  into  chapters  and  verses,  61;    paragraph,  63; 

history,  106;  preacher's  chief  study,  121;  standard  of  appeal, 

161 ;  model  of  style,  332. 
Biography,  223. 

Bourdaloue,  manner  of  preaching,  421. 
Brevity,  or  conciseness  of  style,  352,  369,  372. 
Bright,  John,  allusion  to,  277. 
Brougham,  Lord,  allusion  to,  277. 
BuflFon  on  style,  320. 
Burden  of  proof,  164. 
Butler,  Bishop,  quoted  on  habit,  236. 

CAMPBELL,  George,  on  style,  249,  359,  363. 
Cause  and  occasion,  180. 

Chalmers,  Dr.,  use  of  English  version,  55,  note;  on  Romans,  316; 
sermons  of,  354;  read  his  sermons,  438. 

Changes,  a  cause  of  pastoral,  412. 

Chaplain,  Roger  de  Coverley's,  136. 

Charity,  spurious,  95. 

Chaucer,  quoted,  128. 

Children,  sermons,  114;  critics,  117;  observation  of,  219. 

Choirs,  use  of,  492. 

Christ,  teachings  of,  81 ;  types  of,  84  ;  teacher  of  morals,  98. 

Chrysostom,   his  manner  of    exposition,  313;  preaching  of,  314; 
Homilies  of,  317. 

Cicero,  advice  to  young  orator,  20;  striking  remark  of,  323 ;  famil- 
iar letters  of,  334 ;  and  Roscius,  464. 

Clarke,  Dr.  Samuel,  referred  to,  176. 

Clay,  Henry,  early  training  of,  24. 

Commonplace  book,  use  of,  42,  125. 

Commonplace,  ground  of  eloquence,  22. 

Comparison,  use  of,  157,  239. 

Conclusion  of  sermon,  277 ;  length  of,  286 ;  impassioned,  284. 


INDEX.  607 

Concordance,  Greek  and  Hebrew,  use  of,  78. 

Coquerel,  on  arrangement,  247. 

Countenance,  expression  of,  in  delivery,  467. 

Cowper,  on  affectation,  449;  description  of  preacher,  502. 

DABNEY,  Dr.,  referred  to,  492 ;  quoted,  499. 
Decorum,  pulpit,  502. 

Deduction,  defined,  194 ;  use  of,  194. 

Definition,  meaning  of  term,  153;  examples  of,  154;  importance 
of,  155. 

Delivery,  of  sermons,  general  remarks  on,  406  ;  importance  of,  444  ; 
causes  of  failure  in,  445 ;  requisites  to  effective,  448. 

Demosthenes,  notice  of,  26;  saying  of,  "Action,"  etc.,  444. 

De  Quincey,  on  style,  324,  351,  355;  on  English  Grammar,  327. 

Description,  preacher's  use  of,  150;  power  of,  151. 

Dilemma,  197. 

Divisions,  of  sermon,  262;  historical  allusions  to,  263;  number  of, 
266;  advantages  of  three,  267;  character  of,  268;  relation  to 
each  other,  269  ;  order  of,  271 ;  statement  of,  272 ;  announce- 
ment of,  273  ;  transition  from  one  to  another,  274. 

Doctrines,  staple  of  preaching,  88 ;  great,  to  be  preached  on,  89 ; 
specific  aspects  of,  91 ;  examples,  92 ;  history  of,  123. 

Dramatism,  377. 

EDWARDS,  Jonathan,  allusion  to,  438. 
Elegance  of  style,  general  characteristics  of,  380  ;  in  different 

kinds  of  composition,  381 ;  preacher  not  to  aim  at  exclusively, 

384 ;  not  to  avoid,  385 ;  elements  of,  386-394. 
Eloquence,  definition  of,  20,  246 ;  a  practical  thing,  21 ;  a  serious 

thing,  21 ;  commonplace  the  ground  of,  22. 
Emphasis,  in  reading,  481. 
Energy  of  style,  357;  chief  requisites  to,  358-372;  mistakes  as  to, 

379. 
English  language,  326 ;  works  on,  327. 
English  version,  use  of,  64. 
Epithets,  use  of,  361. 

Errors,  chief  power  of,  94 ;  often  to  be  unnoticed,  97. 
Ethical  philosophy,  124. 
Exclamation,  376. 
Ex  concesso,  argument,  197. 


608  INDEX. 

Exegesis,  use  of,  14G. 

Exemplification,  146. 

Everett,  Edward,  speaking  of,  423. 

Evidences  of  Christianity,  Ro.  Hall  on,  93;  how  treated,  94;  inter- 
nal and  experimental,  95. 

Exhortation,  concluding,  284. 

Experience,  subject  of  sermons,  109;  religious,  220. 

Explanation,  often  needed,  144;  cautions  in  reference  to,  145;  of 
subjects,  153. 

Exposition,  continuous,  306;  Chrysostom's  manner  of,  313. 

Expository  preaching,  advantages  of,  300  ;  objections,  301 ;  man- 
agement of,  302 ;  unity  necessary  to,  304 ;  details  in,  309  ; 
parallel  passages  in,  311 ;  difficult  passages,  311 ;  examples,  316. 

Expression,  in  reading,  481. 

Extemporaneous  speaking,  definition  of,  425 ;  advantages  of,  426- 
431 ;  disadvantages  of,  431  ;  difficulties  of,  435  ;  general  and 
specific  preparation  for,  439. 

Eye,  power  of  orator's,  415,  467. 

EABLES,  use  of,  in  preaching,  226. 
Failures,  susceptibility  of,  433. 
Fancy  and  imagination,  39G. 
Fathers,  authority  of  the,  184. 
Feelings,  to  be  excited,  234. 

Figures  of  speech,  works  on,  372,  note;  conducive  to  elegance,  390. 
Foster,  John,  refered  to,  164,  337  ;  on  use  of  Scripture  phrases,  387. 
Free  speaking,  from  written  preparation,  423. 
Fuller,  Andrew,  his  interpretation  of  Scripture,   55 ;  influence  of, 

67 ;  as  an  expositor,  307 ;  exposition  of  Genesis,  ^17  ;  insensi 

bility  to  art,  403. 
Fuller,  Richard,  his  use  of  incidents,  223. 

&ESTURE,  in  speaking,  471,  473 ;  in  reading,  482. 
Goethe,  quoted,  on  actor  and  orator,  446. 
Gospels,  discrepancies  in  the,  182. 
Gracchus,  Caius,  anecdote  of,  452, 
Grammars,  English,  327  ;  use  of,  328. 
Grimm,  Jacob,  on  English  language,  326. 

HALL  ROBERT,  on  Evidences  of  Christianity,  93  ;  on  plan  of 
sermon,  259;  fond  of  specific  subjects,  291;  style  of,  331. 
Hands,  use  of,  in  speaking,  472. 


INDEX.  609 

Happiness,  desire  of,  a  proper  motive,  233. 

Hell,  reference  to,  83. 

Henry,  Patrick,  early  training  of,  24. 

History,  use  of,  in  interpretation,  81;  examples  of  use,  82;  Bible, 

106  ;  source  of  illustration,  223. 
Holiness,  desire  of,  a  motive,  233. 
Homiletical  habit,  119. 

Homiletics,  meaning  and  origin  of  term,  30;  works  on,  32-37. 
Hoppin,   Prof.,  OflBce  and    Work    of    Christian   Ministry,   36 ;    on 

argument,  159;  on  introduction,  251. 
Howe,  John,  his  use  of  texts,  89. 
Hymns,  importance  of  selecting  good,  484  ;  supply  of,  485 ;    best 

writers  of,  487 ;  the  properties  of  a  good,  487 ;  connection  of, 

with  sermon,  488;    the  rhythm  of,  490  ;  music  of,  492. 
Hyperbole,  374 ;  examples  of,  375. 

ILLUSTRATION,  defined,  213;  uses  of,  214;  works  on,  216,  note; 
importance  of,  215;  sources  of,  217-228  ;  may  be  invented,  220 ; 

cautions  as  to  employing,  228. 
Imagination,  use  in  exciting  passions,  238;   uses  to  orator,  395; 

works  on,  397,   note  ;   historical,  399 ;   means   of  cultivating, 

400 ;  models  of,  404. 
Imitation,  conscious  and  unconscious,  27 ;  instances  of,  28,  note. 
Indolence,  a  foe  to  originality,  134, 

Induction,  defined,  186;  hasty,  186;  safe,  188;  Aristotle  on,  188. 
Inferences,  part  of  conclusion,  281. 
Interrogation,  376. 
Interpretation,  sources  of  error  in,  53-70 ;  treatises  on,  78,  note ; 

rules  of,  61. 
Introduction,  propriety  of,  248  ;  sources  of,  250  ;  examples  of,  253, 

note,  255  ;  qualities  of  a  good,  254;  Vinet  on,  257. 
Invention,  rules  for,  176;  a  source  of  illustration,  220. 
Irony,  allowable,  203. 

J  UDAS,  sermon  on,  296. 

KANT,  his  use  of  a  priori,  178. 
Knowledge,  requisite  to  good  preaching,  23 ;  all  kinds  useful; 
120  ;  has  three  dimensions,  134. 
43* 


510  INDEX. 

LANGUAGE,    imperfection    of,    53 ;    Scripture,    57 ;    Study   of 
affects  style,  325  ;  books  on  English,  327. 
Letters,  familiar,  style  of,  333  ;  Cicero's,  334. 
Life,  human,  source  of  illustration,  218;    our   Lord's   referencee 

to,  219. 
Literature  a  source  of  illustration,  225 ;  study  of,  affects  style,  329 
Logic,  study  of,  recommended,  160,  206. 
Love,  the  strongest  motive,  234. 
Loyola,  Ignatius,  preaching  of,  236. 

MATERIALS  of  sermon,  prepared  beforehand,  118;  from  everj 
source,  120;    provided  at  the  time,  126;   original,  127-135, 
borrowed,  135-142 ;  special,  143. 
Melody  of  voice,  457. 
Metaphor,  373. 

Methods  of  preaching,  historical  notices  of  the  three,  4S6. 
Metres,  books  on,  488,  note. 
Mill  on  Fallacies,  206. 
Minister's  sore  throat,  note  on,  461. 
Miracles,  proof  of,  183. 
Misapplied  texts,  examples  of,  70-78. 

NARRATION,  preacher's  use  of,  147. 
Narratives  of  the  Bible,  303. 
Natural  gifts,  23. 
Nature,  source  of  illustration,  217;  communion  with,  402;  energetic, 

necessary  to  energy  of  style,  358. 
Negative,  not  required  to  prove,  164. 
Newman,  John  Henry,  on  earnestness,  236. 
News  of  the  day,  how  used,  223. 
Newspapers,  831. 

New  Testament,  Revised,  79 ;  Moody's,  86,  note. 
Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  reference  to,  174. 
Novels,  the  reading  of,  404. 

OBJECTIONS,  refutation  of,  209. 
Obscurity,  often  pleasing,  339. 
Oddity,  130. 

Old  Testament,  not  to  be  neglected,  47. 
Orator  and  actor,  445. 


INDEX. 


511 


Orators,  Indian,  24 ;  great  secular,  332. 

Origen,  his  spiritualizing,  67. 

Originality,  127 ;  affectation  of,  130 ,  desirable,  130 ;  obstacles  to, 
132. 

Original  Scriptures,  advantages  of  using,  55 ;  in  expository  preach- 
ing, 307. 

PALMER,  on  reading  sermons,  417. 
Parables,  interpretation  of  our  Lord's,  69. 
Paradox,  sometimes  lawful,  130. 

Paragraph,  importance  of,  349 ;  requisites  to  a,  350. 
Parallel  passages,  quotation  of,  311. 
Particles,  use  of,  350. 

Paul,  style  of  the  Apostle,  322 ;  language  of,  376. 
Personification,  375. 
Perspicuity  of  style,  339;  necessary,  341;  explanation  as  to,  342; 

requisites  to,  342-357. 
Persuasion,  use  of,  232  ;  motives  used  in,  332-334. 
Peter's  denial,  sermons  on,  294. 
Piety,  a  requisite  to  effective  preaching,  22. 
Pilgrim's  Progress  specially  commended,  225. 
Plagiarism,  defined,  135;  ludicrous  and  serious  effects  of,  137. 
Plan  of  sermon,  257 ;  simple  and  fresh,  259. 
Poetry  and  Preaching,  382. 
Poets,  study  of,  403. 
Points,  speaker  to  fix  his  mind  on,  351. 
Polemics,  references  to,  95-97. 
Posture,  in  speaking,  468. 
Practice,  chief  means  of  improvement,  334. 

Prayer  (public),  general  preparation  for,  493  ;  special  preparation 
for,  494 ;  matter  of,  494 ;  improprieties  in,  495 ;  arrangement 
of,  496 ;  language  of,  497  ;  pet  phrases  in,  498 ;  the  utterance 
of,  501 ;  remarks  on  Lord's,  494,  note. 
Preacher,  when  eloquent,  22 ;  to  preach  on  doctrines,  88 ;  relation 
to  controversies,  96 ;  to  morality,  98  ;  to  politics,  103  ;  to  avoid 
ultraism,104;  experienceof  young,  117;  "homiletical habit"  of, 
119;  Bible,  chief  study  of,  121;  why  old  fails,  119;  how  ori- 
ginal, 129;  how  to  use  thoughts  of  others,  139;  when  make 
acknowledgment,  141 ;  explaining  text,  146 ;  to  study  common 
mind,  210;  to  be  a  close  observer,  217;  to  excite  feeling,  235; 


612  INDEX. 

be  subject  of  feeling,  236;  not  uniformly  vehement,  240;  to 
cultivate  variety,  276  ;  to  avoid  forced  feeling,  284;  to  be  per- 
spicuous, 340 ;  to  have  variety  of  style,  377 ;  not  to  aim  at 
prettiness,  382. 

Preaching,  characteristic  of  Christianity,  17;  relation  to  printing, 
18;  to  pastoral  work,  etc.,  18;  difficulty  of,  19;  requisites  to 
effective,  22;  an  art,  25;  doctrinal,  88;  political,  99;  histor- 
ical, 107 ;  expository,  300. 

Presumption,  logical,  defined,  165. 

Profuseness,  372. 

Progressive  approach,  argument  from,  196. 

Prolixity,  353. 

Proposition,  logical  and  rhetorical,  261. 

Proverbs,  value  of,  226. 

Punctuation,  335. 

QUINTILIAN,  on  slight  arguments,  212  ;  sharp  saying  of,  227;  on 
introduction,  256 ;  on  clearness  of  style,  241. 
Quotations,  use  of  foreign,  329. 

READING,  remarks  on,  124;  public,  of  Scriptures,  478;  good,  a  rare 
accomplishment,  479;  club  recommended,  480;  emphasis  in, 

481 ;  expression  in,  481. 
Reading  sermons,  advantages  of,  407-410;  disadvantages  of,  410- 

416 ;  suggestions  as  to,  416-419 ;  origin  of  practice,  437 ;  where 

custom  prevails,  438. 
Recapitulation,  279. 
Reciting  sermons  from  memory,  advantages  of,  420 ;  disadvantages 

of,  420. 
Reductio  ad  absurdum,  197. 
References,  use  of,  86.  • 

Refutation,  198;  men  fond  of,  198;  often  not  complete,  199;  indi 

rect,  201 ;  not  too  vehement,  203 ;  effect  of  successful,  204. 
Renan,  reference  to,  321. 
Repentance,  texts  on,  92. 
Rhythm,  in  prose,  388;  books  on,  390,  note. 
Rogers,  Henry,  quoted,  382. 
Romanist,  diflBculties  of,  172. 

Ruskin,  on  imagination,  396 ;  on  prevailing  frivolity,  401. 
Eyle,  J.  C,  Expository  Thoughts  of,  317. 


INDEX.  513 

SACRED  eloquence,  Henry  Rogers  on,  382. 
Schleiermacher,  quoted,  304. 

Science,  a  source  of  illustration,  221. 

Scriptures,  a  source  of  illustration,  228 ;  study  of,  formerly  and 
now,  307. 

Sentences,  short  and  long,  348 ;  periodic,  363 ;  emphatic  arrange- 
ment of,  365 ;  broken,  368. 

Sequence,  logical  and  physical,  179. 

Sermon,  several  parts  of  a,  248 ;  introduction  of,  248 ;  plan  of,  257  • 
divisions  of,  262 ;  conclusion  of,  277  ;  length  of,  500. 

Sermons,  subject  or  text  of,  87;  classified  according  to  matter,  87; 
doctrinal,  88 ;  not  treatises,  91 ;  moral,  97 ;  political,  98 ;  his- 
torical, 107;  experimental,  109;  funeral.  111;  academic,  113; 
to  children,  114;  diflferent  species  of,  288;  subject,  289;  models 
of  subject,  292,  note;  text,  293;  examples  of  text,  294,  297, 
298;   expository,  299;  scheme  of  series  of  expository,  308 

Services,  length" of,  499. 

Shedd,  on  getting  meaning  of  text,  79 ;  on  preacher's  duty  to  society, 
102  ;  on  "homiletical  habit,"  119  ;  on  discovering  hidden  skel- 
eton, 294;  on  expository  preaching,  302;  on  plainness  of 
style,  340. 

Simplicity  in  style,  391,  393. 

Singing,  a  means  of  cultivating  the  voice,  452. 

Skeletons  and  sketches,  138. 

Smith,  Adam,  quoted  on  style,  381. 

Speaking,  in  relation  to  style,  337. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  on  style,  394. 

Spiritualizing,  founded  in  nature  of  things,  66 ;  in  the  Bible,  66 ; 
practiced  by  the  Fathers,  67 ;  evil  eflFects  of,  84. 

Spiritual  manifestations,  180. 

Spurious  passages,  not  to  be  used  as  texts,  48;   examples  of,  48. 

Stowe,  C.  E.,  on  expository  preaching,  315. 

Style,  general  observations  on,  319 ;  treatises  on,  319,  note ;  Buflfon  on, 
320;  importance  of,  321 ;  English,  French,  German,  and  Ameri- 
can, 322;  meansof  improving,  324;  models  of,  331 ;  properties  of, 
329  ;  perspicuity  of,  329-357  ;  spoken  and  written,  355 ;  energy 
of,  357-379 ;  elegance  of,  380. 

Swedenborg,  reference  to,  65. 

Swift,  letter  to  a  young  clergyman,  343. 


514  INDEX. 

TALKS,  on  meaning  of  passages,  308. 
Terms,  ambiguous,  to  be  avoided,  163;  to  be  intelligible,  343; 
exact,  845;  specific,  more  energetic,  359;  elegant  use  of,  386. 

Testimony,  argument  from,  180. 

Text,  meaning  of  the  term,  38  ;  originally  long,  38 ;  advantages  of 
having,  39;  objections  to  use  of,  40;  selection  of  a,  41  ;  rules 
for  selection  of,  43,  50  ;  ludicrous.  44  ;  familiar,  46 ;  spurious 
passages  not  to  be  used  as,  48 ;  sayings  of  uninspired  men  as, 
48 ;  accommodation  of,  51  ;  difficulty  of  interpreting,  52 ; 
sources  of  error  in  interpreting,  53—70;  grammatical  study 
of,  79  ;  explanation  of,  146. 

Theology,  systematic,  value  of,  122-123. 

Transitional  words,  276. 

Translation,  disadvantages  of  a,  54;  uses  of  a,  79. 

Translations,  making  a  means  of  improving  style,  337. 

UNITY,  importance  of,  296,  303. 
University  (English)  training,  effect  of,  322. 

VERBOSITY,  370. 
Vinet,  on  eloquence,  22  ;  on  use  of  texts,  41 ;  on  interpreta- 
tion, 56;    on  political  preaching,  101;    on  a  priori,  178;    on 
arrangement,  242  ;  on  Bossuet,  266. 
Voice,  importance  of  a  good,  450 ;  powers  of,  451 ;    improvement 
of,  452 ;    penetrating   power  of,  455 ;    rules  for   management 
of,  458. 
Voltaire,  on  texts,  40. 

WHATELY,  pointed  sayings  of,  79;  anecdote  of,  133;  LogiC; 
162,  note;  definition  of  presumption,  165;  on  conciseness; 
352. 
Whitefield's  oratory,  427. 


I 


inVi°H°""'  Seminary-Speer  Library 


1    1012  01127  0941 


DATE  DUE 


HIGHSMITH  #45230 


